Journal of Water and Soil Science

Evaluation of α-Amylase, Lipase and Lipoxygenase Activity in Wheat Flour before and after Germination

M Kadivar

Enzymes of wheat flour have an important role in production of various cereal products, especially bread, and therefore accurate measurement of enzymatic activity along with improvement of this characteristic is the basis of most studies in baking industry. In the present work, physical properties of three wheat varieties (Mahdavi, Kavir and M7318 that are cultivated in Isfahan province) and chemical characteristics of their flours were investigated. In order to study the changes in enzymatic activities (α-amylase, lipase and lipoxygenase), the activities of these enzymes were measured before and after germination. The relationship between root length and α-amylase activity was studied as well as the relation between lipase and lipoxygenase activities. α-amylase activity of flours was also optimized according to falling number 250 s. The effect of this optimization on the bread texture in four different times after baking, on the flour color in three different times, and on the flour acidity in two different times were then evaluated. The results of chemical measurements showed that M7318 and other two varieties can be considered as weak flours and medium flours, respectively, in terms of their protein and gluten contents. However, all varieties had low levels of α-amylase activity, although, kavir flour had more activity than the others. The results of germination tests indicated an increase in the activity of α-amylase and lipase, but not lipoxygenase. Moreover, during germination times a significant negative correlation between root length and falling number was found. Also, a significant positive correlation between root length and α-amylase activity and between activities of lipase and lipoxygenase was observed.

Determination of Moisture Diffusivity in Iranian White Cheese During Brining

L Izady

The microbial and enzyme activity in different points within cheese and quality of final product are determined by local concentrations of salt and moisture in aqueous phase. To predict the evolution of moisture content in different layers of the Iranian white cheese during brining, constant and variable moisture diffusion coefficients were determined using experimental moisture time–dependent concentration-distance profiles. These experimental profiles for Iranian white cheese were obtained in rectangular samples, ensuring semi-infinite unidirectional mass transfer within saturated solution of sodium chloride at different temperatures (6, 14, 19, 24 °C) and brining times (6, 24, 48 h). Results showed that moisture diffusivity increases with increasing temperature and moisture content in cheese aqueous phase. The variation of the moisture effective diffusivity as a function of temperature was represented by the Arrhenius’s relation. Finally, the relation of diffusivity with moisture content and temperature was developed. The predicted diffusivity values using the developed model showed a good agreement with the experimental values by using Boltzman variable method.

Effects of Harvesting Season and Location on the Sugar, Ash and Glycyrrhizic Acid Content of Licorice Root

M SHey zeinodin

Sweet tasting glycyrrhizic acid is considered to be the most important chemical compound in licorice root. However, environmental factors affect chemical composition of licorice root including glycyrrhizic acid content. In this study, the effects of the harvesting time and location on licorice root composition were studied. Chemical composition of the licorice roots (Glycyrrhizia glabra) collected in summer and fall seasons from three locations in Fars province (Eghlid, Beiza and Doshman-Ziary) and one location from each of Kerman (Baft) and Kermanshah (Islam-Abad) provinces was determined. Glycyrrizhic acid, ash and sugar content before and after hydrolysis were measured in all samples after extraction. A combined analysis of variances was performed on data based on a randomized complete block design in six replications. The results showed that effects of harvesting season on sugar content, and the effects of location and its interaction with harvesting season on ash, sugar and glycyrrhizic acid content were significant (p<0.01). It was also found that the lowest ash content were obtained from roots harvested from Islam-Abad in summer the highest sugar content before hydrolysis belonged to roots harvested from both Baft and Islam-Abad in fall. Highest amount of sugar after hydrolysis was reported in the roots collected from Islam-Abad in Fall. Roots harvested from Beiza in Fars province in fall had the maximum glycyrrizhic acid content.

Sourdough Effect on Reduction of Barbari Bread Staling

F SHahidi

This study was intended to use the sourdough LAB containing specific starter cultures for Barbari bread production and reduction of its staling. For sourdough preparation, fresh microbial cells were collected by centrifugation from LAB cultures. Then 1.5% of flour (w/w) from these washed cells with the same amounts of wheat flour and tap water and 0.25% (w/w) active dry yeast extract, containing Saccharomyces cerevisiae were mixed. The effects of fermentation time (8, 16 and 24 hours), fermentation temperature (28, 32 and 36 ºC) and type of starter culture (Lactobacillus sanfransicencis, Lactobacillus plantarum and a mixture of both LAB) were analyzed in a completely randomized design with factorial experiment with 4 replications. Bread staling was determined by its measuring crumb hardness and specific volume in 1, 24, 48 and 72 hours after baking. Correlation between variables was obtained by multivariate regression, and regression models were exhibited. The results showed that sourdough had significant effect (p≤0.05) on reduction of Barbari bread staling at 1, 24, 48 and 72 hours after baking in comparison with control sample. Moreover, the sample prepared with Lactobacillus plantarum (24 h fermentation time and 32 ºC fermentation temperature) had the maximum specific volume and the least staling, 72 hours after baking.

Optimizing Formulation of Pistachio Butter Production

A SHaker Ardekani

Pistachio processing, such as production of pistachio butter, is one of the ways to increase the added value of pistachio. Pistachio butter is a paste containing mainly milled, roasted pistachio kernel and sugar. In this investigation, the effect of two emulsifiers (lecithin and mono-di glycerids) at three levels of 0.0, 1.0, 2.0%, on the oil leakage and the effects of BHT as an antioxidant at three levels of 0.00, 0.01 and 0.02% on the peroxide values of pistachio butter and paste after 4 months storage at 20 °C were studied. Each experiment was performed in triplicates. Rheological and organoleptic tests were performed on the finished products. The results were statistically analyzed by a completely randomized Design and by making comparisons between the means via multiple range Duncan's test (P <0.05). Roasting of the pistachios at 110°C for 15 min was the best condition as determined by taste panelists. Moreover, addition of 15-25% of sugar in butter formula, received the best score by the panelists. The results of organoleptic tests showed that the sample containing lecithin and mono-diglycerides had the least leakage of oil. Based on the results, pistachio butter produced in this investigation received higher score in terms of flavor and texture than industrial pistachio butter in the market. Results also showed that addition of BHT had a significant effect on shelf life of pistachio butter. Rheological experiments showed that pistachio butter produced in this investigation was 1.5 times softer than its industrial counterpart. The results indicated that the best formula for production of pistachio butter was 72.99 - 82.99 % roasted pistachio kernels, 15-25 % sugar, 1% lecithin, 1% mono di glyceride and 0.01 % BHT.

Effect of Temperature, Water Activity and Storage Time on Color Strength, Aroma and Bitterness of Saffron

F SHahidi

Saffron is one of the most important crops in Iran and the quality of its dried stigma is highly depended on the processing and storage conditions. In this study, the effect of different storage conditions in terms of temperature (20, 30 and 40°C) and water activity (0.32, 0.52 and 0.75) during 12 weeks storage on color strength, aroma and bitterness of saffron were investigated. In order to study of moisture (water activity) different saturated solution of MgCl2, Mg(NO3)2, MgBr2 and NaCl in the various temperatures were used. Results showed the color strength decreased as temperature increased. Increasing of water activity resulted in deterioration of crocin and consequently decreasing of color. Furthermore, after 12 weeks of storage, the color strength had a noticeable decrease, the bitterness also decreased but the aroma increased.

Addition of Tomato Peel and Seed to Tomato Ketchup for Improving Its Nutritional Value and Rheological Properties

GH Mesbahi

In this research, tomato peel and waste seed obtained from tomato paste processing were dried and milled. The obtained powder was added to tomato ketchup sauce in different proportions (1, 2, 5, 7 and 10%). To study the effect of tomato peel and seed powder on physicochemical and nutritional properties of the tomato ketchup samples, the parameters including lycopen, total solid, brix, total sugars, reducing sugars, protein, fat, ash, fiber, vitamin C, pH, color (L, a/b) were evaluated. Rheological properties of the ketchup samples (consistency and viscosity) were determined and compared with control samples. Sensory evaluation of the ketchup samples was carried out after 1, 2 and 5 months of storage by a group of panelists. Addition of tomato peel and seed powder resulted in an increase in total solid, brix, ash, fiber, protein, fat, consistency and viscosity of the ketchup samples. Sensory evaluation tests did not show any significant difference between the color, flavor, texture and overall acceptability of the control and samples containing 1 or 2 % of tomato peel and seed powder. In addition, sensory evaluation tests did not show any significant changes in the ketchup samples during storage. Thus, it can be concluded that nutritional and rheological properties of tomato ketchup can be improved by addition of tomato peel and seed powder.

Optimization of Traditional Production Process of Rock Candy

M.J Varidi

This research was carried out taking into consideration the defects of traditional process in and the most important factors affecting production of rock candy. Selected parameters used for effluent and rock candy consisted of supersaturation at 4 levels (1.3, 1.4, 1.5, and 1.6) and temperature at 3 levels (70, 80, 900C) with 3 replications. The physiochemical tests consisted of pH, color and invert sugar percentage done on all the samples. According to the results, the rise in super-saturation and temperature had significant effect on all the effluent and rock candy characteristics (P<0.01) such that color and invert sugar percentage increased and pH decreased as super-saturation and temperature increased. Furthermore, the interaction effect of super-saturation and temperature on pH, color and invert sugar percentage of rock candy was significant (P<0.01).

Investigation of Heat Stablity of Pomegranate Peel Extract

S Yazdanpanah

Antioxidant activity of pomegranate (Punica granatum) peel extract (PPE), extracted by either methanol or ethanol solvent, was studied by phosphomolybdenum method. Antioxidant activity of methanolic PPE was higher than the other. To evaluate heat stability of PPE in sunflower oil, the rancidity rate of the oil was compared at 90, 120, and 150ºC with those containing α-tocopherol and synthetic BHT, using rancimat method. A sample including 1000 ppm PPE had the highest induction period at 90,120 ,150ºC. The use of PPE had no adverse effect on sensory characteristics of potato chips as judged by the taste panel.

Effects of Supplemental Dietary L-Carnitine on Blood Biochemical Parameters and Growth of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

M Jalali Hajiabadi

In order to study the effects of L-carnitine on performance and some blood biochemical parameters of rainbow trout, the present experiment was conducted with 144 fish (130±5 g) for 8 weeks. In a completely randomized design, the experimental fish were divided into 9 groups with 3 treatments and 3 replicates and 16 fish in each group. Levels of L-carnitine supplements were 0 (control), 1 and 2 g per kg of diet. Results indicated that specific growth rate (SGR), total body weight, weight gain and protein efficiency ratio (PER) were significantly increased by 1g/kg L-carnitine supplements (P<0.05). L-Carnitine also improved feed conversion ratio (FCR) of fish. Crude protein of fish fillet was increased, but its crude fat was reduced at 1g/kg L-carnitine treatment. Similarly, cholesterol, total protein, albumin and globulin of fish blood serum were significantly (P<0.05) increased by the same levels of L-carnitine in the diet, however, blood glucose level remained unchanged. L-Carnitine reduced visceral fat index and increased hepatosomatic index. In conclusion, the results of the present study indicated that the addition of 1g L-carnitine per kg of diet could improve the performance of rainbow trout at grower stage.

R Kowsar

Enrichment of Egg Yolk with Long Chain n-3 Fatty Acids through Supplementation of Kilka Fish Oil to Layer Diets

J Hosseini Vashan

Seventy- two 26-weakk-old white leghorn layers (w-36) were fed commercial diets containing 0, 2 and 4 fish oil and the diets were iso-caloric and iso-nitrogenous. Hens were randomly assigned to 3 treatment diets, with 3 replicates and 8 layers in each. The experiment was conducted over a period of 12 weeks in order to study the effects of feeding fish oil on fatty acid composition of egg yolks. The yolk of eggs was extracted and cholesterol content was determined in each period. Statistical analysis of results was performed using the general linear procedure (GLM) of the SAS and means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test. As a result, saturated fatty acid (myristic, palemitic and stearic acid), ω-7 (palemitoleat) and ω -9 (oleat) and arashidonat in egg yolk was not significantly (P>0.05) different among treatments, but the linoleat and ω -6 fatty acid were decreased in all FO treatments (P<0.05). The linolenic acid did not vary in treatments but the other ω -3 fatty acids (eicosapentaenoate and docosahexaenoate) were increased in FO treatments and there was a statistically significant difference between treatments (P<0.05). The ω -6/ ω -3 ratio was decreased from 18 in control to 3.8 and 2.31 at 2 and 4% treatments, respectively(P<0.05).

Effects of Beet Bulp Substituted for Barley Grain in Ration of Overconditioned Cows at the Late Lactation on Productivity,BCS and Blood Metabolites

E Mahjoubi

In order to examine the effects of increasing concentrations of beet pulp (lipogenic nutrient) substituted for barley grain (glycogenic nutrient) on productive performance, body condition score loss, and blood metabolites, 18 Holstein cows were used in a randomized complete block design. The cows were blocked based on parity. The cows were 171 ± 16 d in pregnancy, 2.76 ± 1.14 parity, and 289 ± 35 d in milk at the beginning of the experiment. The cows' body condition scores were 4.12 ± 0.35 at the beginning of the trial. The cows were assigned randomly to three dietary treatments containing 1) 23.47% barley (0% beet pulp), 2) 14.87% barley (8.6% beet pulp), or 3) 6.27% barley (17.2% beet pulp). Substituting beet pulp for barley grain didn't affect FCM 3.5%, milk protein, lactose, total solid, and SNF percentage, but milk fat percentage (4.37, 4.91, and 5.18, P < 0.003) and milk energy (0.76, 0.82, and 0.84 Mcal/kg, P < 0.02) increased as beet pulp was replaced with barley, respectively. A tendency was detected for a more negative body condition score change (0.13, -0.09, and -0.12, P < 0.13) and back fat thickness (2.5, -0.4, and -1.6 mm, P < 0.13) with added beet pulp. Plasma glucose (65.83, 58, and 57.16 mg/dl, P < 0.01) and cholesterol (157.33, 122.4, and 120.8 mg/dl, P < 0.03) decreased as beet pulp was substituted for barley grain, respectively. No difference was found in the plasma content of insulin and NEFA between treatments. Considering these results, it appears that with inclusion of beet pulp in fat cows diet during late lactation may slightly reduce body condition score safely and inhibit concomitant low production with diet diluting.

Comparison of Different Animal Models in Estimation of Variance Components and Genetic Parameters of Body Weight of Mehraban Sheep

F GHafori

Variance components and genetic parameters of body weight of Mehraban sheep were estimated by univariate and random regression models. This was done by using body weight records of 2746 Mehraban lambs related to flocks under supervision of the Agriculture Organization of the Hamadan province, collected between 1990 and 2005. In both methods, variance components estimates were obtained by restricted maximum likelihood (REML) using DFUNI and DXMRR programs, respectively, via DFREML 3.1 software package. Results showed that variance components obtained from RR models (except for residual variance) in some ages were higher than those obtained from univariate models. Direct heritability (h2) estimates from univariate and RR models were approximately equal to weaning age but, overall, RR estimates were higher than those obtained from univariate analyses. Maternal heritability estimates (m2) from RR models were higher than univariate models’ estimates, and showed a different pattern of variation with age. Correlations between predicted breeding values from univariate and RR models for birth weight and weaning weight were 0.72 and 0.70, respectively. Results showed that estimates of variance components and genetic parameters by RR models were affected by data structure and in case of the need for genetic parameters, especially those related to body weight late in lambs’ life, estimates of univariate analyses should be preferred.

The Effect of Pistachio by-Product on Nutrient Apparent Digestibility, Rumination Activity and Performance of Holstein Dairy Cows in Early Lactation

A Naserian

Eight multiparous Holstein dairy cows with 634±44 BW, 57±6 DIM, and 46.7±3.1 kg daily milk yield were assigned to a duplicated 4×4 Latin square design for 21-day periods (adaptation, 14d sample collection, 7d). The treatment diets were: 1) no pistachio by-product (control), 2) 5% of pistachio by-product, 3) 10% pistachio by-product and 4) 15% pistachio by-product. Corn silage in control diet was replaced with pistachio by-product. The blood metabolites (2h after feeding), DMI, daily milk yield and milk compositions were not affected by the treatment diets. The economically corrected milk (ECM) and fat corrected milk (FCM) were decreased linearly by increasing pistachio by-product in the diet (P<0.1). By increasing the by-product level in the diet, digestibility of DM, OM, NDF and ADF were decreased linearly (P<0.05). Daily rumination and chewing activity alone or per DMI, NDFI or ADFI were linearly decreased when the by-product level increased in the diet (P<0.1). The results showed that the pistachio by-product does not seem to be suitable for complete replacing of the roughages in the diet and it can be used as a part of forage in the diet up to 10% of DMI.

Development and Field Evaluation of a Rotary Hydraulic Divider for Canola Harvesting

Raoufat

Oil seed rape is an important non-cereal crop used mainly for edible oil production. Canola pods are fragile and its branches are twisted together at harvesting time. Harvesting with a conventional combine can pull off twisted branches and cause appreciable losses in the vicinity of divider at combine header. In this study, a hydraulic rotary divider was designed and developed to separate twisted pods and reduce the grain loss. The device is made up of two cylinders and a number of fingers, the cylinders rotate in opposite direction and fingers move in and out through holes on cylinder walls. The assembly was expected to separate the twisted pods and reduce grain loss. A hydraulic motor driven by combine hydraulic system was used to rotate the separating cylinders. The separating assembly was installed on righthand side of the combine harvester header. A split-plot experiment was used to evaluate the performance of the unit. Field tests were carried out at combine forward speed of 1.5 kmh-1. Variables were: cylinders rotary speed in three levels (50, 75 and 100 rpm), the number of fingers in three levels (16, 12 and 8), and the tests were conducted with and without combine reel. Two different positions of finger protrusion were also considered in field tests. The results were compared with those of a conventional combine header. The results show that the medium rotational speed (75 rpm) exhibited lowest seed loss. Furthermore, as the number of fingers increased, the seed loss tended to decrease. The seed loss also decreased in the presence of combine reel. Also, findings showed there is no significant difference between the two protrusions trajectories of fingers. A twenty percent decrease in seed loss was observed at rotary speed of 75 rpm and number of fingers of 16 in the presence of combine reel.

QTL Analysis of Forage Quantity and Quality-Related Traits of Barley

B Siahsar

In order to map the genomic regions affecting barley forage quantity and quality, two experiments were conducted with 72 doubled haploid lines and their two parents (‘Steptoe’ and ‘Morex’), at the Research Farms of the Faculty of Crop and Animal Sciences, University College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran and Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Station of Sistan, in 2007. The experiments were arranged in a randomized complete block design with two replications. Each plot consisted of six rows that were 3m in length and spaced 25cm apart. QTL analysis was conducted by Composite interval mapping (CIM) method separately for each trait in each location. The main effect of genotype was high significant for all the studied traits. Transgressive segregation in both directions (positive and negative) was observed for all the studied traits. There was a negative relationship between forage qualityrelated with quantity-related traits. Thirty-three QTLs controlling different studied traits were identified. Phenotypic variance explained by these QTLs varies from 7.07 to 39.04%. Highest LOD scores were obtained for the leaf to stem ratio on chromosome 2H. QTLs of forage quality (total digestible nutrient, dry organic matter digestibility, leaf to stem ratio, seed to forage ratio and number of tiller per plant) and quantity (plant height, forage wet and dry matter) indexes were found on chromosomes 1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H. Most of mapped QTLs appear to be fairly stable between locations and can become candidates for marker-assisted selection.

The Influence of Genotype and Induction Medium on Efficiency of Anther Culture of Hetrotic Indica × Indica Rice Hybrids

KH Alizadeh

This study was set up in the research station of Rice Research Institute of Iran (RRII) to determine the response of three hetrotic Indica × Indica rice hybrids (Bahar1, IR75221H and IR69688H) to anther culture on four induction media (N6, modified N6, chu and modified chu). To evaluate hybrids, the percentage of calluses which had been made from anthers in early uni- to mid- uninucleate stage and the number of regenerated plantlets of calluses in those media were determined. The results indicated that genotype, composition of callus induction medium and their interactions significantly affected callus percentage, total plant regeneration and production of green and albino plants. IR75221H hybrid was considerably superior for callus induction (1/64%) and Bahar1 hybrid was the most desirable for producing of green plants (3/43%) and total regeneration (12/24%). IR75221H hybrid produced higher albino plant (10/66%) and IR69688H hybrid produced lower albino plant (6/45%). The best medium culture in the case of callus induction was modified N6 (2%) and total regeneration (21/82%) produced green plant (5/6%), and albino plant (16/22%) was modified Chu among all media culture. However, genotypes showed different results in each media culture, and responses to hybrid of anther culture was low, but by changing the media culture we increased the response of culture.

A Study of Postemergence Herbicides Efficacy for Goosegrass (Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.) Control in Tall Fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) Turf

F Maighany

To study the goosegrass (Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.) in tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.), an experiment in 15-year old turf was conducted during 2006 in Tehran in Sheikh Fazlollah highway using randomized complete block design with 4 replications in 1*1 m2 plots. Treatments were diclofop methyl at 2.5 and 3 Lha-1, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl at 0.8 and 1 Lha-1, clodinafop propargyl at 0.6 and 0.8 Lha-1, tralkoxydim at 1 and 1.2 Lha-1, sulfosulfuron at 27 and 35 gha-1 and untreated control. All treatments were repeated 3 times during the growing period of goosegrass. The results showed that after the last spraying, diclofop methyl at 2.5 and 3 Lha-1, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl at 0.8 and 1 Lha-1, clodinafop propargyl at 0.6 and 0.8 Lha-1 decreased goosegrass's biomass up to 81, 83.64, 81.26, 78.58, 80.27 and 81.26 percent, respectively and goosegrass's density up to 82.5, 83.13, 79.38, 79.38, 78.75 and 80.63 percent, respectively, without significant differences. Treatment after 2 times of spraying controlled goosegrass more than 80 percent. Tralkoxydim and sulfosulfuron decreased goosegrass' biomas and density about 70 and 60 percent, respectively. One week after the last spraying, diclofop methyl, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl and clodinafop propargyl treatments did not decrease tall fescue's biomass without significant differences with untreated control. Turf biomass was decreased by tralkoxydim at 1 and 1.2 Lha-1 and sulfosulfuron at 27 and 35 gha-1, by 37.54, 36.79, 40.48 and 48.55 percent, respectively. Herbicide treatments made visual rating by 49.38, 48.75, 48.75 and 50.63 percent, respectively. Overall, diclofop methyl at 2.5 Lha-1, fenoxaprop-p-ethyl at 0.8 Lha-1 and clodinafop propargyl at 0.6 Lha-1 can be recommended for goosegrass control in tall fescue because of insignificant differences between both their doses, bio-environmental problems, costs, and no damage to tall fescue.

Effects of Enrichment of Mulberry Leaves with Riboflavin Vitamin on Economic Characters and Fecundity of Silkworm Bombyx mori L. in Guilan Province, Iran

R Ebadi

The effect of mulberry leaves enrichment with riboflavin in 7, 37, 77 and 127ppm concentrations on larval growth and cocoon characteristics of Bombyx mori L., hybrid 103×104 was studied. Silkworm larvae were fed on fresh mulberry leaves of shin inche nevise enriched with riboflavin once a day. All biological and economical parameters were determined by using standard techniques in sericulture. The results showed that larval weight was greater in 77ppm among treatments on the 7th day of the fifth instar which had 47% increase compared to control. Maximum amount of female cocoon weight and female pupal weight were recorded 1.622g and 1.169g, respectively, in 127ppm while male cocoon weight and pupal weight were greater in 37ppm and recorded to be 1.169g and 0.895g, respectively. Maximum amount of cocoon shell weight and cocoon shell ratio were recorded in 77ppm for male (0.311g and 26.06%) and female (0.318g and 21.46%). Maximum weight of 50 eggs (0.027g) was recorded in 127ppm while high fertility and hatchability was recorded in 77ppm concentration. Effective rate of rearing was maximum in control treatment (72%) with no significant difference compared with other treatments. The overall results showed that riboflavin can be used at 77ppm concentration for the significant increase of cocoon weight, cocoon shell ratio and egg production of silkworm, Bombyx mori L.

Deterrent, Antifeedant and Lethal Effects of Methanolic Extract of Neem Seed Kernel on Cotton Boll Worm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner),in Comparison with Two Commercial Products (Neem Azal and Neem Plus)

KH Talebi jahromi

Various effects of methanolic extract of neem seed kernel on larvae of cotton boll worm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were studied and compared with those of Neem Azal T/S and Neem Plus, two commercial formulations. The pest was collected from Gorgan (Golestan Province, Iran) and reared on a bean based artificial diet. The neem seed was collected from Bandar-Abbas (Hormozgan Province) and extracted in laboratory. Growth inhibitory and antifeedant assays were carried out on larvae treated with seed kernel extracts in 3 concentrations,1, 2.5 and 5%, under choice and no-choice conditions. The neem extract had a significant antifeedancy effects on larvae. Neem Plus and 5% extract had the least and most antifeedancy effects, respectively. The most and least feeding rates belonged to Neem Plus and Neem Azal treatments, respectively, which differed significantly (P<0.05). Feeding deterrence index (FDI) was highest in 5% extract which also differed significantly from Neem Plus treatment. Larvae treated with extract led to malformation and prevented formation of pupa and ultimately caused death. The LT50 values with confidence limit (CL) of 95% were 3.84 and 4.13 d, for Neem Azal and 5% extract respectively. DC50 and EC50 of extract were 4.73% and 2.73% at similar CL, respectively.

Investigation of Some Effective Factors in the Efficiency ofPheromone Traps of Oak Leaf Roller Moth Tortrix viridana L. (Lep.: Tortricidae) in Kurdistan Province

H Goldansaz

One of the most important pest in the Oak forest of Kurdistan province is Oak leaf roller moth, Tortrix viridana L. (Lep.: Tortricidae). Use of pheromone trap is one of the suitable methods for monitoring and controlling of the pest. In this work, three main factors which affect the efficiency of traps including trap type, pheromone dose and installation height trap were studied. Four types of trap including cylindrical, rectangular, delta and wing trap were tested. Capture efficiency of the traps, were installed in the middle, and top heights of the trees were compared. Three doses of pheromone 0.5, 1, and 1.5 mgr per trap were also compared. Results showed that there were significant differences among four types of traps. Cylindrical, rectangular and delta traps caught more number of moths than wing trap (P<0.05). There were no significant differences between two installation heights (P>0.05). However, a significant differences was observed among three doses (P<0.05), and the dose of 0.5 mg caught more moths than the other three doses. Therefore cylindrical traps containing 0.5mg of synthetic sex pheromone installed in the middle of the trees canopy may be recommended in the management program of the pest.

Factors Affecting Epiphytic Population of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli in Epidemiology of Bean Common Blight

M Bahar

To understand the role of relative humidity rate, host genotype, inoculation method and growth stage in epidemiology of bean common blight, two greenhouse experiments were carried out monitoring epiphytic population size of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. phaseoli (Xap) and disease severity. The result showed significant differences among genotypes, inoculation methods and growth stages for epiphytic population size and sam effects except genotypes for disease severity. The epiphytic population size was significantly higher on spray inoculated Khomein cultivar of bean during flowering (R6). However, the relative humidity rates did not significantly affect population dynamics of epiphytic Xap and the disease severity. Two field experiments were also carried out to determine the effects of irrigation systems (furrow irrigation and overhead sprinkler irrigation), inoculation method, growth stage and their interactions on epiphytic population size of Xap and disease severity. The result showed that the epiphytic population size and disease severity were higher on spray inoculated plants irrigated with overhead sprinkler system during pods filling (R8). In this study, a significant positive correlation was found between epiphytic population size of Xap and bean common bacterial blight severity.

Identification of Meloidogyne javanica Using Morphological and Morphometerical Characters and Species Specific Primers

H Askarian

Root knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) cause yield loss in all countries, of which, M. javanica, is the most widespread species in Iran. In order to identify M. javanica, 100 infected root and soil samples of root knot nematode were collected from different regions of Kerman province. After purification of populations and identification of M. javanica based on morphological and morphometerical characters of females and second stage juveniles (J2), total DNA was extracted from eggs, J2 and female adults. Specific 670 and 1600 bp bands were amplified in all M. javanica populations using species-specific primer pairs including OPARjav / OPAFjav and Mjavf / Mjavr These specific bands could not be amplified in other species such as M. incognita and M. arenaria. It seems that, application of these species specific primers in comparison with morphological characters would be more applicable, leading to easier identification of M. javanica.

Assessment of Quantitative Loss Caused by White Tip Disease (Aphelenchoides besseyi) in Greenhouse and Microplot Conditions

E Pourjam

In order to estimate the loss of rice caused by white tip nematode, (Aphelenchoides besseyi), to Alikazemi cv., two series of experiments were conducted in greenhouse and microplot conditions at Rice Research Institute, Rasht (Guilan province) during 2005-2006. The microplots sizes were 0.5×2 meter. Rice seedlings were inoculated by plastic tube method with 0, 100, 300, 500, 700 and 900 nematodes per plant. The experiments were arranged in greenhouse and microplot conditions as a completely randomized design and completely randomized block design with four replications, respectively. The factors under investigation consisted of symptoms (number of plants and Leaves infected), yield and population density of nematodes. The variance analysis of data showed significant differences among treatments in all parameters. The minimum infestation level leading to symptoms and yield loss in microplot condition (500 nematodes) was greater than greenhouse (300 nematodes). Regression analysis of data revealed that the yield reduction was mainly explained by population of nematodes in greenhouse and microplot (R2= 92.56, R2 = 91.55). Also, there was a positive correlation at 5% level of probability between disease incidence and nematode population (R2= 84.42, R2 = 75.27). The resulting equations from regression can be used to estimate crop loss from population of nematodes.

A Study of Genetic Diversity in Sardari Wheat Ecotypes Using AFLP Markers and Agronomic Traits

ZH Osamny

Studying genetic diversity is important because a decrease in genetic variability might result in a reduction of the plasticity of the crops to respond to changes in climate, pathogen populations, or agricultural practices. In this study, 72 Sardari wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) ecotypes were analyzed by AFLP markers and 17 phenotypic characters. Three pairs of EcoRI/MseI primer combinations produced 1582 polymorphic bands (with mean percentage of polymorphic 73.92%). Cluster analysis using Jaccard coefficient and the entire AFLP data divided all ecotypes into eight major groups. Mean, coefficient of variation, phenotypic, genotypic and environment variance were calculated in each quantitative character. Cluster analysis using Euclidian distance through the quantitative characters divided all ecotypes into six major groups. Comparison of genetic distances obtained from AFLP and agronomic data showed low correlation between the two diversity measurements (0.02). The results showed a high degree of genetic diversity between the Sardari ecotypes, suggesting that Sardari is not a single cultivar, but it is the mass of ecotypes and could be introduced in the gene bank.

Effect of Nitrogen, Salinity and Organic Matter on Growth and Root Morphology of Pistachio

A Razavinasab

To study the effect of nitrogen, salinity and organic matter on growth and root morphology of pistachio (Cv. Badami), a greenhouse experiment was conducted. Treatments consisted of four nitrogen (N) levels (0, 60, 120 and 180 mg kg-1 soil as urea), four salinity levels (0, 800, 1600 and 2400 mg NaCl kg-1 soil) and three organic matter (OM) levels (0, 2 and 4% soil as farmyard manure). Treatments were arranged in a factorial manner in a completely randomized design with three replications. As the salinity levels increased, leaf, stem and root dry weights and root density, were significantly reduced. Addition of N up to 120 mg kg-1 soil, had no significant effect on growth, but the highest N level (180 mg kg-1), due to nutrient imbalance, reduced abovementioned plant parameters. In low salinity levels, N application improved the growth of pistachio seedlings, but at the highest salinity level, N addition didn’t suppress the adverse effects of soil salinity. Due to useful physical and nutritional properties of soil organic matter, addition of OM significantly increased leaf, stem and root dry weights, stem height, shoot/root ratio and root density.

Effect of Citrus Rootstocks and Scions on Boron Uptake

M.S Tadaion

In arid and semi arid regions with high boron content in irrigation water, boron toxicity is a considerable problem. Critical levels of boron in irrigation water variy between 1 and 10 mg/l for sensitive and resistant plants, respectively. In southern parts of Iran especially large citrus production region as Jahrom and Giroft cities, high boron content in irrigation water at toxic levels in most of the region has been the restricting factor for citrus yield increase and for citrus trees exposed to intensive deficiency of potassium and micronutrients like iron, zinc and magnesium. In this experiment, the separate effects of citrus rootstocks including Macrophylla (Citrus macrophylla Wester), Volkamer lemon (Citrus volkameriana), Sour orange (citrus aurantium), Sour lime (Citrus aurantifolia Swing) and their combination with ‘Valencia’ orange, ‘Washington navel’ orange, ‘Jahrom local’ orange, red pulp orange (‘Moro’) as scions on boron uptake were studied. The experiment was conducted as factorial arranged in randomized complete block design with 5 replications and 2 trees per plot in Jahrom Agricultural Research Station for 4 years. According to experimental results, the highest level of boron uptake belonged to ‘Volkamer’ lemon and the lowest to ‘Macrophylla’ rootstocks. Although, Sour orange rootstock had the medium level of boron uptake, but the leaf boron concentration of grafted cultivars on it was clearly very high. In comparison with other rootstocks, interaction between ‘Macrophylla’ rootstock and ‘Valencia’ orange, ‘Washington navel’ orange and red pulp orange (Moro), except ‘Jahrom’ local orange as scions, caused a significant decrease to leaf boron concentration.

Investigation of Land Use Changes in Qale Shahrokh Basin Using Remote Sensing (1975 - 2002)

S Barati GHahfarokhi

To investigate land use changes, Qale Shahrokh basin (15098.1 ha area) was selected. Satellite images of Landsat sensors (MSS, TM and ETM+) were used. After improvement and different enhancement analysis of images such as FCC, PCA, the study area was checked using GPS and topographic maps (1:50000) and other information. Land use units were determined using classified random sampling method. Maps accuracy was assessed after performing different classifications. Final land use maps of 1354, 1369, 1381 years were produced using a hybrid method with fine accuracy. Trend of land use changes was investigated during the study periods. Results showed that during the first period (1354), most area of land use was rangeland with sparse vegetation cover (%41.6) and least area was irrigated farming (1.5%). Also, during the second period (1354-1369) most area of land use was rangeland with sparse vegetation cover (%43.4) and least area was irrigated farming (4.1%). During the third period (1369-1381), the maximum area of land use was dry farming (%35.6) and minimum of area was irrigated farming (7%). Maximum land use change was related to rangeland with medium vegetation cover. They were changed into dry farming and rangeland with sparse vegetation cover during 1354 to 1369. During 1369 to 1381, maximum land use changes occurred on poor rangeland with sparse vegetation cover and rangeland with medium vegetation cover was changed into irrigated and dry farming.

Assessing the Species Grazed by Wildlife (Gazelle) and Livestock (Sheep & Goat) in Steppe Rangelands of Poshtkoh Region of Yazd Province, Iran

A Ephtekhari

Species which were grazed by livestock and wildlife in range sites and the portion taken by each animal were the subject of this study. Two sites occupied with Scariola orientalis (Boiss.) Sojak and Artemisia sieberi Besser and another with Aellenia subaphyla (C.A.Mey.)Aellen and Artemisia sieberi were selected for the study. These sites were already established by Yazd Research Center for Agriculture and Natural Resources. Sites should be covered with similar vegetation (72% similarity), as much as possible indeed. One site, by the name of Kalmand, is a protected area and is exclusively grazed by Iranian gazelle, while the other, Jadehdehshir, by sheep and goat. Results of the study show that the selection of species is the same by these animals. Both are interested in the following species: Artemisia sieberi, Scariola orientalis, Bromus tectorum L, Stipa barbata Desf. , Noaea mucronata (Forsk.) A schers.et Schweinf, and Launaea acanthodes (Boiss.)o.Kuntze. On the contrary, species such as Acantholimon scorpiurs (Joub. &Spach) Boiss, Astragalus albispinus L were not taken by the animal for their woody stems and thorny branches. Fresh and non woody parts of the plants were grazed by both types of animal. Similarity between grazing behavior of wildlife and livestock in Yazd province shows that wildlife feed requirement should be seriously taken into account when grazing capacity of rangelands is to be evaluated.

Isfahan Land Cover Change Detection in The Past 4 Decades Using Remote Sensing

S Falhakar

Remote sensing is the main technology for assessing expansion and rate of land cover changes. Knowing the different kinds of land cover changes and human activities in different parts of lands, as the base information for different planning is especially important. In this study, the land cover changes of Isfahan city that is consist of Isfahan and its` surrounded area was studied for the past 4 decades. For researching the study objectives, the aerial photos with scale of 1:50000 taken in 1955, MSS, TM and ETM+ images from Landsat satellite taken respectively in 1972, 1990 and 2001 and the topography maps of Isfahan city and its` surrounding were used. All of the aerial photos and satellite images with the nearest neighbor sampling were georegistered with the RMSe less than one pixel. For image processing, the best false colored composite image was first produced according to OIF index. Then land cover maps of the studied area were produced in 5 classes by using the combination of supervised and unsupervised classification and NDVI index. At the end, the produced maps compared with post-classification method. The results showed that the most urban area sprawl was occurred between 1972-1990 with the mean of 571 ha in a year and the least growth was come about between 1955-1972 with approximately 324 ha in a year. However, by declining the annual mean of green cover 1263 ha during 1955-1972, the most green cover demolition occurred in study area.

Comparing Hydraulic Excavator and Bulldozer in Construction of Forest Road Standarad Cross Section in Different Slope Classes (Lattalar, Mazandaran Province)

A Parsakho

Forest roads must be constructed according to technical standards and guidelines which have been published by the scientific and operational organizations. Recently, hydraulic excavators have been used beside the bulldozer for excavating the forest roads. Thus, it is necessary that their ability in construct of standard cross sections be compared. This study was conducted in Lattalar forest which is located south of Sari city (Mazandaran Province). 60 cross section samples were randomly selected for each machine in slope classes of 30-40, 40-50, 50-60 and 60-70%. Then, cross sections were taken by niveau and clinometer. The results in different slope classes showed that the hydraulic excavator and bulldozer had no significant effect on cut and fill slopes length and gradient. Roadbed width in bulldozer construction area was more than the hydraulic excavator at probability level of 1%. Also, there was a significant difference between the hydraulic excavator and bulldozer earthworking width in slope classes of 30-40 and 40-50% at probability level of 5 and 1%, respectively, whereas this difference was not significant in other slope classes. Finally, the average standard cross sections for hydraulic excavator and bulldozer were 89.96 and 84.81%, respectively.