JWSS - Journal of Water and Soil Science

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The ability of earthworms in recycling a wide range of organic solid wastes is well established. Only a few earthworm species are suitable for commercial vermicomposting. Two species, Eisenia foetida and Lumbricus rubellus, are common in temperate regions. Samples of earthworms were collected from manure pills and forest litter in North and Northwest of Iran. The samples were maintained in pots under greenhouse conditions. External morphological characteristics of mature worms were used in identifying earthworm species. These characteristics included: total number of body segments, numbers of clitellum and tubercula pubertatis (TP) segments, dorsal and external body color, body size, prestomium and prostomium shape, number of first segment with dorsal pore and patterns of clitellum and TP. All collected samples belonged to the species Eisenia foetida. Under incubation conditions in manure substrate (a moisture of 70% saturation at 24±2^oC), each worm produced 1-2 cocoons daily and each cocoon contained 2-7 worm embryos. The collected earthworm samples showed a good ability in vermicomposting of manure, plant residues, and some organic industrial refuses. The C:N ratio decreased during the vermicomposting process, which indicates the improved stage of decomposition and the vermicompost stability.

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A field experiment was conducted in 2000 at the Agricultural Research Station, Isfahan University of Technology, to model the response of four safflower genotypes to day length and temperature changes under field conditions. Five planting dates (March 12, April 12, May 10, June 8, and July 12) and four safflower genotypes (Arak 2811, local variety Koseh, Nebraska 10 and Varamin 295) were evaluated using a randomized complete block design with split-plot layout in three replications. Date of planting was considered as the main plot and cultivars were randomized in the sub-plots. Number of days from planting (P) to emergence (E), stem elongation (SE) to head visible (HV), and HV to flowering initiation (FI) significantly reduced with delay in planting as the result of increase in temperature during these periods. Number of days from P to SE, duration of flowering (DF) and termination of flowering (TF) to physiological maturity (PM) were significantly affected by planting date and reduced as day length increased. The same was observed in the case of number of days from P to 50% flowering (MF) and to PM. Large co-variation of day length with temperature may explain a portion of day length contribution to the variation in the above periods. Varamin 295 was later than other genotypes with respect to the duration from P to HV, and specially, for rosette duration. In addition and for unknown reasons, the rate of development (RD) of Varamin 295 at all developmental periods could not be explained by day length and/or temperature variables. Among other genotypes, Koseh with 125 days, and Nebrska 10 with 118 days from P to PM were the latest and the earliest genotypes, respectively. The response of Koseh to planting dates, as measured by the duration of various developmental stages, differed from Arak 2811 and Nebraska 10. This was attributed to the probable response of Koseh to day length. RD of Koseh, Arak 2811, and Nebraska 10 during P to MF was explained by a linear regression and RD of Koseh during P to PM by a polynomial regression with day length by mean temperature as an independent variable. RD of Arak 2811 and Nebraska 10 during P to PM was explained by minimum temperature. It seems that partial sensitivity of Koseh to day length has a considerable significance in its adaptation to environmental conditions prevailing in the summer under Isfahan climatic conditions.

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To evaluate the effect of broiler growth rate and feed intake on development of the inflammatory response‚ commercial broiler diets were fed to 275 day–old chicks of the modern 2000 strain and 1957 random-bred strain. Half of the chicks had free access to feed while others were restricted. Twelve birds from each strain and group pens were removed‚ weighed, and housed in individual cages by their original feeding programs on 0‚ 7‚ 14, and 28 days. Three feed-restricted and three ad libitum birds from each strain were injected with 1-3 ml of 100 μg/ml solution of Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide on days 6‚ 13‚ 27‚ and 41, and 3 birds of each group were not injected‚ serving as controls. All birds were weighed and the liver‚ breast muscle‚ thymus gastro intestinal tract and bursa were removed on the day after injection. The thymocytes of the control birds were subjected to an interleukin–1 responsiveness assay. The 1957 strain birds were more severely affected by an inflammatory challenge going almost completely off feed‚ but the 2000 strain birds experienced a more drastic decline in growth rate after injection. Thymocytes of ad libitum birds were more sensitive to IL-1 than the restricted birds in week 4 (P=0.056). Interleukin-1 stimulated thymocytes of 2000 birds more effectively than the 1957 strain ones. In conclusion‚ the broiler inflammatory response was affected by growth rate and feed intake.

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The changes of main sugars and organic acids of Red delicious and Golden delicious apples from Semirom region in Isfahan Province were determined by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). The apples were harvested, graded and packed in three kinds of wood, car-board and perforated polyethylene film packages and stored for eight months at 0±0.5^oC and 90 to 95% relative humidity for further analysis. Sucarose, glucose and fructose, as well as citric and L-malic acids were detected and quantified in all packed samples. The obtained data were analyzed with factorial experiment in completely randomized design and mean were compared by Duncan^,s muliple range test. The results showed that fructose was dominant in both cultivars in all packages compared to other sugars. Golden delicious apples contained more sucrose and less glucose than Red delicious. All sugars decreased in packed apple samples during the storage period. The dominant organic acid of both cultivars was L-malic. Citric acid increased to its maximum level in Red or Golden delicious after one or two months of storage, respectively, and then decreased gradually by the end of storage period. In general, apples kept in perforated polyethylene films exhibited the best physiochemical properties during eight months of cold storage.

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Traditional paddy dryer systems in Iran cause considerable losses in rice production due to non-uniform drying. In order to decrease the amount of kernel fissuring and to increase the drying rate, fluidized bed method was applied in this study for rough rice drying at temperatures higher than normal. An experimental dryer was used for drying the samples. The drying experiments were set up to find kernel fissuring percentage and the drying times under three conditions: fixed, minimum, and full fluidized bed conditions at temperatures of 40, 60 and 80^oC. Results showed that the amount of kernel fissuring, at minimum fluidization compared to fixed bed condition, decreased 57%, 68% and 75% at temperatures of 40, 60 and 80^oC, respectively. This reduction at full fluidization compared to fixed bed condition, at the above temperatures, was 40%, 54% and 65%. The minimum fluidization method took the lowest and the fixed bed method took the highest drying time. It was concluded that the minimum fluidization drying method had the lowest fissuring and drying times at all experimental temperatures.

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In Iran, about 75% of national rice production is supplied in Gilan and Mazandaran proviences which have the highest amount of precipitation. Seasonal prediction of rainfall induces significant improvement on yield production and on preventing climate hazardz over these feritle areas. Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) model was carried out evaluates the possibility of the prediction of winter rainfall according to the states of ENSO events. The time series of (southern oscilation index (SOI) and SST (sea surface temperature) over Nino's area (Nino's SST) are used as the predictors, and precipitation in Bandar Anzali and Noushahr are used as the predictands. Emperical orthogonal functions (EOF) were applied for reducing the number of original predictors variables to fewer presumably essential orthogonal variables. Four modes of variations (EOF1, EOF2, EOF3, EOF4) which account for about 92% of total variance in predictors field were retained and the others were considered as noise. Based on the retained EOFs and precipitation time series, the canonical correlation analysis (CCA) was carried out to predict winter precipitation in Noushahr and Bandar Anzali. The results indicated that the predictors considered account for about 45% of total variance in the rainfall time series. The correlation coefficents between the simulated and observed time series were significant at 5% significant level. For 70% of events the anomalies of observed and simulated values have the same sign indicating the ability of the model for reasonable prediction of above or below normal values of precipitation. For rainfall prediction, the role of Nino's SST (Nino4 in particular) was found to be around 10% more influential than SOI. .

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An approach for regional low flow frequency analysis is to use multiple regression techniques for obtaining relationships between low flows with specific return periods and catchments characteristics. In this paper, this method has been used. After single-site frequency analysis for 20 stream gauging stations, homogeneity test was performed. Regional relationships between low flows with return periods 2 , 5 , 10, and 20 years and catchments characteristics were derived. For this purpose, catchment area, mean elevation, minimum elevation, shape factor, main channel length, length of main chanel from catchment centroid to outlet, forest area, mean annual rainfall, and mean catchment slope as model inputs were examined and cachment area, mean elevation, and mean catchment slope entered to the models. Finally, the mean relative error of models for different return period, 2, 5, 10, and 20 years, was computed 41.1, 41.3, 45.0, 47.2 percent, respectively that in comparison with other studies, it displays smaller errors.

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The possibility of using a steel plant by-product (converter sludge) as an iron fertilizer was investigated. This compound consists of 64% Fe oxides. Considerable amounts of elements such as Ca, Si, Mn, P, and K are also present in the sludge. To study the converter sludge, an incubation experiment was carried out on three calcareous soils. Treatments were 0, 4, and 8 percent of converter sludge mixed with soils plus mixtures of 4% converter sludge with elemental sulfur, thiobacillus inoculum and sulfuric acid. Soil samples (400 g) were kept at field capacity and room temperature in capped, aerated plastic containers for two months. Sub-samples were taken at 1, 10, 30, and 60 days of incubation and analyzed for Fe, Mn, Zn, P, and K contents as well as EC and pH. Results showed that converter sludge increased significantly extractable Fe proportional to the rate of sludge used. Sulfuric acid application increased Fe availability significantly, but the availability of this nutrient generally decreased with the incubation time. Application of the sludge also increased the pH slightly at the beginning of incubation. Elemental sulfur and sulfuric acid application increased Fe and Mn availability significantly. Application of the sludge without and with elemental sulfur and sulfuric acid slightly increased availability of P. The results of this study revealed that converter sludge might be used as an iron fertilizer. However, further investigation in greenhouse and field experiments is needed.

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Iranian flat breads generally have short shelf life. The result of this situation is usually enormous bread wastage. Among the most important factors involved are lack of proper packing and storage methods. In this study, the best temperature for bread packing was determined and the effects of three types of plastic wrapping on Taftoon bread baked of the typical flour were investigated after 72 hours of storage. These wrappings included a two-layer wrapping of oriented polypropylene and polyethylene (OPP/PE) with a thickness of 60 µ, a three-layer wrapping of PP/PE/PE with a thickness of 70 µ, and a two-layer polyethylene with a thickness of 70 µ together with cardboard and plastic. Bread packing was carried out at two different temperature ranges (20-25^oC and 45-50^oC). Results from moisture measurements and water activity test indicated that the characteristics of breads packed in different wrappings showed significant differences (p<0.01). Moisture percentage and water activity (a_w) were lower in layers with higher permeability to moisture and water vapor and, consequently, algal growths reduced in these wrappings. Reduced moisture content, however, reduced the final bread quality score. It was also found that employing cardboard covered in polyethylene had no significant effect on bread shelf life during 72 hours of bread storage. Another finding from the present study was that packing a large number of 10×10 cm bread pieces within one single wrapping with cardboard and plastic was satisfactory and that the presence of the cardboard helped maintain bread shape during transportation and storage.

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Bulk tomato paste is produced in concentrations higher than 35% (350 Brix scale) and its packaging is not hermetic. In recent years, the production of this product in our country has considerably increased. One of the most important problems in the tomato paste industry of Iran is the preservation of bulk tomato paste. Shelf-life of tomato paste depends on many factors such as initial quality of tomato paste, cooling conditions, salting, packaging, handling, and cold storage. The product factors evaluated in this study included: 1) microbial parameters such as total count, acid-resistant microorganisms, and Howard Mould Count and 2) physico-chemical parameters such as acidity, pH, amount of lactic acid (D and L forms), and total dry matter. Experimental data showed that using high brix (35-38) in producing tomato paste along with salting the product surface and storing it at 0 ºC had only a limiting effect on microbial changes and could not prevent their growth completely. However, salting treatment had a great effect on surface growth of fungi and their ability to produce colonies and mycelia. On the basis of the results obtained from this study, cooling of bulk tomato paste in ambient temperature is critical to bulk tomato paste production process and also has an important effect on the quality and shelf-life of the product.

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Bread, the main staple food of Iran, imparts a major portion of energy and protein to urban and rural diets. Due to the use of flour with high extraction rate and improper fermentation of the corresponding dough, traditional breads have a rather high level of phytic acid. This has a detrimental effect on absorption and availability of minerals (Ca, Fe, Zn, Mg, Cr, Cu, etc.), carbohydrates, proteins and lipids, thus leading, for e.g., to iron-deficiency anemia in the present study, flours with different extraction rates (with known phytic acid content) were used for baking “Sangak” and “Lavash” breads and analyzed for phytic acid. Different levels of yeast, times of fermentation and extraction rates of flour were applied in the preparation of breads and their phytic acid levels were then estimated. Based on technological merits and residual phytic acid contents, breads prepared from two types of treatments were selected, their chemical composition, availabilities of iron and lysine as well as organoleptic characteristics were evaluated. Results indicated that under the employed conditions total destruction of phytic acid in “Sangak” and “Lavash” is rather impractical. A considerable reduction in phytic acid was noted: in “Lavash” bread using 2.5% yeast, 4 h of fermentation and a 50-50 blend of flours with 81.0 and 86.5% extraction rates and in “Sangak” bread with similar conditions (except for the flour which was a 50-50 blend of 86.5 & 97.5% extraction rates). Available lysine was similar in both of the selected breads compared to their respective references. Their available iron contents, however, were higher than their corresponding references (P ≤ 0.05 ). No significant differences were observed with regard to organoleptic evaluations of selected breads as compared to their references (P ≤ 0.05 ). Overall, the above-mentioned treatments are recommended for the baking of “Sangak” and “Lavash” breads.

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In this study, the effects of quality and quantity of protein in flours with 95% and 70% extraction rates obtained from Mahdavi and Tajan wheat cultivars each baked at two different durations (100 and 75 sec.) and temperatures (210 and 250°C), after wrapping in polyethylene packages with 40µm thickness were investigated. All tests were carried out during 168 hours after packing and at 24h intervals. Results indicated that bread staling was affected by wheat cultivar, flour extraction rate, and storage time. Bread prepared from Tajan flour had lower firmness and staleness than that prepared from Mahdavi. High bran content bread was firmer than that with lower bran content. Organoleptic tests indicated that bread baked with 95% flour and bread baked at high temperatures with short durations were not very acceptable.

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Systemic properties of pyroquilon, an anti-blast systemic chemical, used in controlling rice blast disease caused by Pyricularica grisea, was investigated through in vivo tests. Rice plants were treated with pyroquilon as granules in soil. Leaf and stem tissues were collected at different times after treatment and pyroquilon was extracted from tissues and detected by gas chromatography. Treated rice plants were also exposed to disease infection in blast nursery at different times and disease incidence was evaluated one week later. Pyroquilon was detected in leaf tissue one day after treatment (DAT), reached maximum during 4-7 DAT, and then reduced gradually to a nondetectable level after 28 DAT. In stem tissue, change in pyroquilon content was similar to but its quantity was less than that of leaf tissue. On inoculated plants, disease was controlled up to 60% at 2 DAT and completely controlled during 4-28 DAT. The results indicated that pyroquilon could be taken up and systemically translocated in rice plants after applying as granules in soil. Extent of disease control was a good function of pyroquilon content in leaf tissue (R²=0.93) and 2 ppm of compound in leaf could provide 90% control of the disease. In contrast, disease control was not a good function of pyroquilon content in stem tissue (R²=0.30).

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One hundred and two microorganisms were isolated from 85 paddy soil samples of different locations in Guilan Province. Antagonistic effects of the microorganisms were tested against Gibberella fujikuroi on PDA medium. Twenty one microorganism isolates were selected for seed treatment in blotter test. Seven isolates that were satisfactorily effective in reducing pathogen colonies formed on seeds and seedlings were tested in controlling disease in a greenhouse experiment with split plot design. The antagonists were Bacillus subtilis, B. circulans, Bacillus sp., Trichoderma harzianum, T. virens (2 isolates), and F.23 (unidentified). Results showed that all antagonists effectively reduced the disease in sterilized soil compared with control but overall effectiveness of B. subtilis, T. harzianum, and T. virens was higher than others and lower than the fungicide treatment (thiophant methyl thiram W.P. 80% , 2g/L). It was found that when seeds were treated with antagonists prior to inoculation with the pathogen, the effectiveness of antagonists was significantly better than when they were applied after seed infection with the pathogen.

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The effects of 4 different levels of nitrogen (0,120,150, and 180 kg nitrogen per hectare) and one level of poultry manure (10 tons per hectare) on the quantitative and qualitative characteristics of an autumn grown cultivar of cucumber [Cucumis sativus, cv.'super dominos] were studied in DarrehShahr, Ilam. The experiment was conducted in a completely randomized block design with 3 replications. The results showed that treatments affected yield, number of nods and plant fresh weight and the highest yield was 41/287 ton/ha in the plots receiving poultry manure. Also 180 kg of pure nitrogen increased yield compared to control. Effect of treatments on fruit length, diameter, and fruit dry matter was different. Plant length, number of nodes, and plant fresh weight showed a positive and significant correlation with plant yield.

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Analysis of transgenic plants is very important in gene transfer programs. In this research, the second generation (T₁) of transgenic brassica napus which was transformed by antisense of Glutamine synthetase (GS) gene was studied from the view of total soluble protein content of leaf, total chlorophyll and protein patterns (SDS-PAGE) using seeds of Brassica napus .Protein concentration was determined by a calorimetric method described by Bradford method. Chlorophyll (a, b) and carotenoid contents were determined by spectrophotometry. The total soluble protein content of Brassica napus leaves increased from YG stage, reached a maximum level during MG₂ and, after this, decreased with the progress of SS stage. Comparison of the total soluble protein between different treatments showed the highest level in the A₂ plant and the least in the A₆ plant. Comparisons with chlorophyll a and b were not significant between different treatments, but different stages showed significant differences with maximum and minimum levels obtained in the MG₁ and SS, respectively. Protein patterns were also studied using SDS-PAGE method. No new band was recognized in the MG₁ stage, but the density of some protein patterns was shown in YG and MG₂ stages. In YG stage, differences were seen among the A₅, A₃, A₄ and A₆ with W.T on 41 KDa weighty position and also between the A₁ and A₂ with W.T treatment on 23/6 KDa. Considering the molecular weight GS₁ subunit of glutamine synthetase (41 KDa) and the similar conditions in growth, protein extraction and macro molecular analysis in transgenic and control plants, we can tell that the difference shown in transgenic plants are probably due to the effect of the antisense of glutamine synthesis gene in this plant.

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The results of diallel analysis of 7 parents and 21 F2 progenies of Burley tobacco cultivars, which were transplanted in 2002 as RCBD with 3 replications in the Tobacco Research Center, Rasht, Iran, showed significant genetic differences among genotypes and high GCA and SCA for most of the traits. Therefore the role of additive and non-additive (dominant) effects of genes on the formation of the corresponding characteristics was important. The graphical analysis of progenies of diallel crosses showed partial dominant effect for nicotine percentage in leaves. The distribution of parents around regression line showed most dominant genes in cultivars B.CDL 28, B.Banket, and B.21 while cultivars B.14 and B.TN 86 hade most recessive genes for this characteristic. Also the low and high percentages of nicotine were controlled by dominant and recessive genes, respectively. Estimated simple (phenotypic) relationships between characteristics showed significant correlation between dry leaf yield of tobacco cultivars and its components such as leaf area index (LAI) (r = 0.482**), time to flowering (r = 0.440*), appearance of leaves (r = 0.648**) and percent age of dry matter of leaves. The path coefficient analysis showed very high direct influence of dry matter percent age of leaves, appearance of leaves, and LAI in dry leaf yield. These characteristics would be a favorite selection index for increasing tobacco yield, since characteristics such as leaves per plant, plant height and time to flowering have no significant direct influence on dry leaf yield of tobacco cultivars. These yield components explain 82% of variance of tobacco yield. Results of factor analysis, using principal Component Analysis (PCA) with Varimax rotation showed that characteristics such as leaves per plant, LAI, and plant height with high positive and significant factor loading as a morphological factor explain 44% of data variance. The second factor including such traits as time to flowering, appearance, and percent of dry matter of leaves with high positive and significant factor loading, form a physiological factor. These two factors together explains 65% of variance of dry leaf yield of tobacco cultivars.

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The effects of growth of two strains of lactic acid bacteria on microbial flora of ground beef after packaging in air permeable packs were studied under workshop conditions. The strains isolated from dairy products were added to ground beef at a density of 10⁴ CFU/g after identification and antibiosis test against indicator bacteria (Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus). The two strains were Lactobacillus casei subsp. casei 102, and Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis 202. Inoculated and control samples were stored for up to five days under aerobic conditions in cold storage facilities with a temperature fluctuation between of –1°C to 5°C). Enumeration of different bacterial groups (total aerobic microorganisms, lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas spp., coliforms, Staphylococcus aureus, fungi) and detection of Escherichia coli were carried-out during storage period. The number of lactic acid bacteria in samples inoculated with lactobacillus casei subsp. casei 102 (treatment 1) increased during storage period, whereas total number of aerobic microorganisms, Pseudomonas spp., coliforms, and yeasts reduced. In samples inoculated with Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis var. diacetylactis 202 (treatment 2), the number of yeasts decreased considerablely. As a result, Lactobacillus casei subsp. casei 102 can be used as a suitable antagonist of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria in ground beef under aerobic Conditions in cold storage facilities with a temperature variation between –1°C to 5°C.

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In this study the effects of four quince harvesting times (at 10 - day intervals), in 2 years on fruit quality during cold storage for 5 months at 0˚C and 85% Relative Humidity were investigated. Fruits were picked from orchards in Flavargan region of Isfahan. Every month, pH, sugar content, acidity, TSS, tissue firmness of fruits were determined. Variance analysis shows that the effect of year on TSS, sugar content, and pectin was siginificant (α =1%) as well as on tissue firmness (α =5%). Harvesting time effect was only significanrt on sugar content while storage time showed a significant effect on TSS, Sugar content and acidity of fruits. Year and harvesting time interaction effect on sugar content and TSS was significant ( α=1%). Year and storage time interaction effect on pH, pectin and tissue firmness was significant while no significant effect on measured parameter was observed for harvesting time and storage time interaction. Simultaneous effect of year, Storage time and harvesting time on pH, pectin and tissue firmness was significant ( α=1%). Meanwhile average analysis by Duncan test showed that different harvesting times had no significant effect on measured parameters except on fruit sugar content. Acidty , pH., and TSS values were changing significantly durig storage. Sugar content of 4th and 5th months of storage was maximum. Pectin content, acidity and tissue firmness showed the maximum level at the first harvesting time while pH was maximum at the 2nd harvesting time. It was concluded that 4th harvesting time (181 days after flowering period) and 5 months of cold storage are the optimum conditions to keep the quality quince.

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Agropyron is one of the most resistant plants to biotic and abiotic stresses. It plays an important role in forage yield in rangelands. Genetic variability based on different markers is the important step in crop improvement. In order to evaluate the genetic variation of different Agropyron species based on morphological and chemical traits, this experiment was carried out in the Agriculture and Natural Resources Research Center of Kermanshah. The tiller numbers, spike length, spikelet numbers, length of flag leaf, width of flag leaf, plant height, peduncle length, ash percentage, organic matter, fiber, dry matter, fat and crude protein were registered. Statistical analysis of data was done by SPSS software. According to cluster analysis the tetraploid genotypes were classified into 5 clusters. Based on principal components analysis the length of flag leaf, spike length and plant height, and among the chemical traits of the ash percentage, organic matter, and crude protein had the highest portions of variance. The genetic parameters such as PCV, GCV, ECV, Hb and Ga for length of flag leaf were 0.274, 0.169, 0.215, 0.382, 3.05 and for spike length were 30.96, 21.64,22.139, 0.48, 5.786 and for plant height were 0.16, 0.084, 0.136,0.276, 6.054, respectively.