JWSS - Journal of Water and Soil Science

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The effect of adding two urea levels (0.5 and 0.75% on fresh basis) to whole-crop barley (WCB) on chemical compositon and digestibility in Ghezel rams was studied. The effect of including these silages in the ration of fattening Ghezel and Mehraban rams was also investigated. Urea supplementation of WCB silage resulted in an increase in pH, total nitrogen level, and ammonia-nitrogen concentrations (P<0.05). Apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter, organic matter, acid detergent fiber, and neutral detergent fiber of WCB silage were not affected by urea treatment (P>0.05), but apparent digestibility coefficient of total nitrogen was higher for 0.5% urea-WCB silage. Apparent digestibility coefficients of total nitrogen and nitrogen balance were higher for 0.5% urea-WCB silage than for 0.75% urea-WCB silage, but the differences were not significant. Ruminal fluid pH at 2.5 h, and ammonia-nitrogen concentration at 4 h post-feeding were higher for 0.75% urea-WCB silage than for 0.5% urea-WCB silage (P<0.05). BUN levels (<20 mg per dl) in sheep fed with a mixture of alfalfa hay and silages were not affected by the treatment. The potential and effective degradabilities of dry matter and crude protein were higher for 0.75% urea-WCB silage. Feed performance and carcass characteristics were not significantly different amongst diets. The results showed that urea supplementation at 0.75% fresh basis, at the time of ensiling, may have a beneficial effect on feeding value of WCB silage.

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A ruminal in situ experiment using three fistulated ewes was conducted to determine dry matter (DM) and crude protein (CP) degradation of steam–flaked broomcorn (SFBr), ground broomcorn (GBr) and ground barley (GB). Grain samples were suspended in the rumen of sheep for 0, 2, 4, 8, 16, 24 and 48 h. Nylon bags were washed with tap water after removal. Effective degradability of DM at outflow rates of k = 0.05 and k = 0.08 h^-1 was significantly higher for SFBr than for GBr (59 and 53% vs. 43 and 35%). SFBr has considerably higher soluble DM than GBr and GB. Insoluble DM of SFBr was lower than that of GBr and GB. Solubility of CP in broomcorn grain was significantly decreased by steam–flaking, but degradation rate of insoluble CP was not altered. Results from this study showed that SFBr supplies the major source of availabe nutrients for rumen microorganisms compared with GBr. In other words, using the most efficient processing method for ruminants will be necessary.

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In this study, the effect of deficit irrigation with every–other furrow irrigation method, which is an innovated method in farm irrigation management, was examined on sorghum (Sorghum durra L.) in Bajgah and Kooshkak areas of Fars Province. The experimental design was split plot with three main plots of irrigation interval (10, 15 and 20 days), three subplots of irrigation methods (ordinary furrow, fixed and variable every–other furrow), and 4 replications. Considering the crop production cost with real and subsidized prices of water in both areas, the net benefit per unit volume of irrigation water and benefit–cost ratio were calculated. The results showed that these economic parameters for the fixed and alternative furrow irrigation methods of 10-day intervals in both areas did not differ much with those of the ordinary furrow irrigation with 10-day intervals and were even higher in Bajgah area. Furthermore, the relationship between the amount of irrigation water, water application efficiency (Ea), water price per unit volume (Cw) and the net benefit per unit volume of irrigation water (B) with different conveyance efficiencies (Ec) were determined by multiple linear regression procedure. The regression coefficients of linear fit equation between the costs and irrigation water were determined. The results indicated that with higher price of water, the farmer should increase the farm irrigation application efficiency to avoid the economic losses.

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This experiment was conducted to investigate the effects of intensity of restricted early feed and increased nutrient density after restriction period on performance and compensatory growth in broilers. Two hundred and eighty-eight broiler (Lohman) chicks in a completely randomized design in a 2*3 factorial arrangement of treatments were employed. Birds were fully fed from 7 to 13d or 100% of adlibitum intake on a daily basis. The diets were diluted at 25% and 50% levels with rice hulls. After the restriction period, birds were fed with a diet, formulated to meet all their nutrient needs, according to the NRC (1994) or 10% of protein, methionine and lysine above NRC in the realimentation diet from 13 to 21d. Body weight, feed intake, daily gain and feed conversion were determined weekly and selected carcass characteristics (liver, intestine and abdominal fat pad) were measured at 49 days of age. Feed restriction significantly (P<0.01) decreased body weight gain and feed conversion during the restriction period. Birds were able to fully recover body weight depression up to 49d. The intensity of restriction had no effect on body weight, feed intake, daily gain and feed efficiency at 49d (p>0.05). Increased nutrient density had no effect on growth rate, feed intake and feed efficiency for fully-fed birds and restricted birds at 49d. The results from this experiment showed that broiler chicks may be expected to gain weight similar to chicks with fully feeding even after restricted early feed if fed with NRC diets. The effect may be due to compensatory growth.

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In order to study the nutritive value of grades 1 and 2 wheat feed screening and macaroni wastes as energy resources, 360 21-day-old broiler chicks were divided into 36 groups of 10. In this experiment, each experimental levels of feedstuff was used at 0 (control group), 15, 30 and 45%. In addition, their apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn) was determined by Sibbald’s method. Daily feed intake of chicks fed by diets containing macaroni wastes and grade 1 wheat feed screening for 21 to 56 days of age was significantly lower than that in the control group (P<0.05). In contrast, body weight, daily weight gain and feed conversion had no significant differences during this period. However, in the total experimental period, the best feed conversion belonged to chicks fed with various levels of macaroni wastes and grade 1 wheat feed screening. Apparent metabolizable energy (AMEn) of macaroni wastes and wheat feed screening were 3700, 3270, and 2870 kcal/kg, respectively. According to the results of this experiment, it is possible to use macaroni wastes and grade 1 wheat feed screening at 45% and 30% levels in the diet of broiler chicks, respectively, without any undesirable effects on their performance.

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This experiment was conducted to study the effects of using cotton-seed meal on the performance and carcass yield of broiler chickens at different ages. The experiment was performed in a completely randomized design with four treatments and five replicates for each treatment. The experimental treatments included the levels of 0, 3.5, 7, and 10.5% of cotton-seed meal in diets fed to chickens at 7-21 days of age. Except for the control group, these levels for grower (21-42 d of age) was increased to 7, 14, and 21% and for finisher (42-56 d of age) to 14, 21, and 21%, respectively. For the purposes of this study, 260 day-old chicks were reared in litter until 7 days of age. On day 7, chicks were divided into 20 pens with 13 chicks in each pen. NRC (1994) recommendation was used in balancing experimental diets. The chickens were weighed weekly throughout the experimental period (7-56 d). The main observations were body gain, feed intake and feed conversion ratio. Physical analysis of carcass was done at the end of the experimental period and percentages of carcass, abdominal fat, liver, pancreas and digestive tract to live body weight were calculated. The use of cotton-seed meal and the increase of the levels through different ages had no significant effects on body weight, daily gain, feed intake, feed conversion ratio, and carcass components. Increasing the level of cotton-seed meal in the diet at 7-21 days of age had significant effects on feed intake (P<0.05) and increased it. The results of this experiment indicate that we can use cotton-seed meal at levels of 7,14, and 21% of diets, respectively, in starter, grower and finisher stages without having any adverse effects on the performance and carcass yield of broiler chickens.

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An experiment with a 33 factorial arrangement in a completely randomized design with 450 day-old broilers was conducted to study the effect of energy level and time of change from starter to finisher diets on performance and economic aspects of broilers. Broiler chickens were fed at three levels of dietary energy (2800, 3000, and 3200 KcalME/Kg) from 1-42 days of age. Starter and finisher diets were changed at 16, 21, and 26 days of age and then finisher diets were fed up to 42 days of age. The effect of diet energy and changing time from starter to finisher diets on body weight and feed conversion at 26 days of age were significant (P<0.01). By increasing energy level and changing time from starter to finisher diets, at this age, body weight increased and feed conversion ratio decreased. Energy conversion decreased by decreasing the levels of energy content of diet and increasing time of change from starter to finisher diets (P<0.01). At 42 days of age, the effects of diet energy and changing time from starter to finisher diets did not show any significant effects on feed and energy conversion in contrast, body weight at this age increased significantly as a result of increasing time of change from starter to finisher diets (P<0.05). From 1-42 days of age, the interaction between diet energy and changing time from starter to finisher diets on feed and energy conversion was significant (P<0.05). The results from this study suggest that increasing diet energy and changing time from starter to finisher diets for producing broilers with less than 2 kg will improve their general performance.

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To evaluate the effect of broiler growth rate and feed intake on development of the inflammatory response‚ commercial broiler diets were fed to 275 day–old chicks of the modern 2000 strain and 1957 random-bred strain. Half of the chicks had free access to feed while others were restricted. Twelve birds from each strain and group pens were removed‚ weighed, and housed in individual cages by their original feeding programs on 0‚ 7‚ 14, and 28 days. Three feed-restricted and three ad libitum birds from each strain were injected with 1-3 ml of 100 μg/ml solution of Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide on days 6‚ 13‚ 27‚ and 41, and 3 birds of each group were not injected‚ serving as controls. All birds were weighed and the liver‚ breast muscle‚ thymus gastro intestinal tract and bursa were removed on the day after injection. The thymocytes of the control birds were subjected to an interleukin–1 responsiveness assay. The 1957 strain birds were more severely affected by an inflammatory challenge going almost completely off feed‚ but the 2000 strain birds experienced a more drastic decline in growth rate after injection. Thymocytes of ad libitum birds were more sensitive to IL-1 than the restricted birds in week 4 (P=0.056). Interleukin-1 stimulated thymocytes of 2000 birds more effectively than the 1957 strain ones. In conclusion‚ the broiler inflammatory response was affected by growth rate and feed intake.

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This experiment was conducted to investigate the effect of whey via drinking water on broiler chicken performance. In a completely randomized design, whey at levels of zero, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 100% of drinking water was used for 47 days. 720 day-old broilers (Ross) were divided into 24 groups, 30 chicks per group and each experimental treatment was given to four replicates from 7-54 days of age. The whey was supplied freshly. The chicks had free access to feed and water during the experimental period. All chicks were fed with starter, grower, and finisher diets. Chicks in all pens were weighed and their feed consumption was calculated at 21, 42 and, 54 days of age. At the end of the experiment, two males and two females from each pen were selected, killed and their carcass, abdominal fat, pancreas, liver and ileum were weighed. Ileal contents of each pen were collected and pooled and kept at -20^oC for bacterial count. The litter moisture content of each pen was determined at days 21 and 42. Body weight, daily body weight gain, feed conversion, and litter moisture were significantly (P<0.01) affected by whey levels. These indices decreased as a result of consuming whey by more than 40% feed conversion, however, increased. Percentage of carcass decreased significantly (P<0.01) due to consumption of 80 and 100% whey. Percentages of abdominal fat, liver, and pancrease were not significantly affected by the amount of whey. Percentage of ileum increased and showed significant (P<0.05) difference with control group. The regression equations for body weight and daily body weight gain, feed conversion and litter moisture in all ages, were significant (P<0.05) and polynomial. This indicated that consumption of whey by more than 40% caused reduction in broiler performance. No significant differences were observed in ileal contents of Lactobacillus and Entrobacteria due to different levels of whey, but total bacteria in ileum contents increased significantly (P<0.01) as whey content in drinking water increased.

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Germination of strawberry seeds from self- and cross pollination of 4 commercial cultivars were evaluated under mist and in vitro cultures. The study was conducted in McGill University in Quebec, Canada, during 1994 and 1995. Self-pollination of Chambly and Redcoat cvs., and cross pollination of Oka × Chambly as well as Redcoat × Veestar and their reciprocals were used. At maturity, fruits were harvested and their seeds were separated. A sample of each seed lot was grown in greenhouse under mist condition and in vitro using MS medium. In the latter, both intact and cut seeds were used. Germination index (containing germination velocity and rate) was used as a criterion for germination evaluation. The results showed that there was no sign of germination in intact seeds 40 days after cultivation on MS medium however, cut seeds containing plantlets started germination 2 days after cultivation and obtained 90 percent of the germination after one week of culturing on the medium. Germination of seeds under mist condition began 15 days after sowing and showed a minimum of 55 to 87 percent in different genotypes till the end of the experiment period (60 days). Germination index (GI) under this condition ranged from 15.4 to 26.1. GI comparison of seeds under in vitro and mist conditions indicates a lower germination rate in different genotypes under mist condition. This study also showed that the rate of germination in strawberry seeds could range from 0 to 100 percent depending on genotype and type of treatment used. The best treatment for a synchronized and rapid germination was found to be using cut seeds containing the plantlets on MS medium.

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In order to determine the effects of using macaroni wastes instead of barley on dry matter intake (DMI), milk yield and composition, and nutrient digestibility, eight lactating Holstein cows (4 primiparous and 4 multiparous) in midlactation were used in a 44 Latin square design. The experimental periods were 21 d with 16 d for adjustment and 5 d for data collection. Treatments included a control diet (1) and diets 2, 3, and 4 containing 15, 30, and 45% macaroni wastes, respectively, which were fed three times a day as total mixed rations. During the last 5 days of each period, feed and fecal samples were taken for determination of DMI and apparent digestibilities and milk samples for fat, protein, lactose, and solids no fat (SNF). During the last day of collection period, urine samples were collected 3 and 5 h postfeeding for pH determination. The results showed no significant differences among experimental traits in either primiparous or multiparous, and across all cows. Milk yield and efficiency of feed conversion were nonsignificantly higher for diets 2, 3, and 4 compared with control cows. Compared to the control diet, DMI, fat, protein and SNF percentages did not significantly decrease in diets 3 and 4. From the results of this expriment, it may be concluded that replacing barley with macaroni wastes up to 45 percent could increase energy intake without any adverse effects on milk production and composition or on metabolic function in midlactating dairy cows.

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In order to study the nectar quantity and quality of some onion cultivars and honeybees foraging activity on them, a complete randomized block design with three replications was conducted. Ten selected onion cultivars consisting of Ghom, Kashan, Azarshahr, Dorcheh, Tarom, Kazeroon 1, Kavar, Abarkooh, Hurand, and Yellow Sweet Spanish were used. Sixty mm mother bulbs of different onion cultivars were planted in 3×4 m plots on 6 lines. The distance between rows was 35 cm and plants were spaced 25 cm apart on each row. At flowering time, bees’ activity on the inflorescences was studied and flower nectar was collected in 10 micro-liter capillary tubes. Nectar volume was determined and analyzed. Mean numbers of honeybees visiting on inflorescence every 10 minutes and the mean residing time of each honeybee on a seed stalk (inflorescence) were significantly different in different cultivars. Hurand flowers had the least number of visitors and Dorche flowers had the longest visiting time. The amount of nectar varied in different cultivars, so did glucose (G), fructose (F), and sucrose (S) contents. Except for the Abarkuh cultivar that had more glucose than it had other sugars, all the cultivars had higher quantities of fructose than they had other sugars while sucrose had the least quantities among the sugars. Nectar sugar ratio in most of the cultivars was hexose dominant, which was identified by the low S/(F+G) ratio. Potassium, calcium, and sodium contents in nectar were different in different cultivars, too. Finally, the results showed that foraging activity of honeybees on onion inflorescences depends on the interactions of several factors such as nectar quantity and, more importantly, on sugar quantity and ratio as well as potassium content. .

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In a completely randomized design, the effects of six different additive compounds including limestone, hydrochloric acid, zeolite, aluminum sulfate, pad ammoniac, and fatty acids on nitrogen, pH, temperature, moisture, water soluble phosphorus, and microbial count of litter of broiler chicken were investigated. Each compound was added at a level of one kg/m² of litter. Six–hundred-and-sixteen (616) day- old broiler chickens (both sexes) were divided into 28 groups, 22 chicks per group. Four replications were allocated to each treatment from 1 to 56 days. All groups were fed with the same diet. Litter moisture was not affected by the treatment. Experimental treatments significantly (p<0.05) influenced the litter pH on day 21. The lowest pH was obtained with aluminum sulfate and the highest pH was obtained with limestone. At the end of the experimental period, all treatments had nearly the same pH levels. Litter temperature was not affected by the treatments . Experimental treatments had a significant (p<0.05) effect on litter nitrogen and bacterial count. Correlation between litter pH and nitrogen was significant and negative (r = -0.95, p<0.05). Effect of treatments on soluble P was significant and the lowest soluble P belonged to aluminum sulfate and pad ammoniac. Correlation between soluble P and pH was positive (r = 0.48, p<0.05). The results showed that some chemical compounds can be used to reduce litter pH, nitrogen, and soluble P and their effectiveness diminishes as chicks grow older.

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This experiment was conducted to evaluate the effects of adding acetic acid to drinking water on the performance and ileal microorganisms of broiler chickens. In a completely randomized design with 5 treatments and 5 replicates, 300 day-old commercial mail broiler chicks (ROSS) were divided into 25 groups, 12 chicks per group. Each of the five levels of acetic acid added to drinking water (0.0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4%) were given to five replicates for a period of 21 days. All groups were fed a practical corn-soybean based diet. During the experiment, chickens were not fed any antibiotics or coccidiostats. The diet formulation for all groups was the same. At 14 and 28 days of age, one chicken of each replicate was weighed and killed by cervical dislocation. Ileal contents were collected and used for microbial evaluation. At 49 days of age, one bird from each pen was killed to weigh gastrointestinal tract, liver, pancreas and abdominal fat. The number of total aerobes and colliforms per gram of ileal contents were enumerated on the appropriate bacteriological media. There was no significant difference in feed intake, weight gain, feed to gain ratio, live body weight, gastrointestinal tract, abdominal fat, liver and pancreas weights (p>0.05). Also, the differences among treatments for total aerobe and coliform counts were not significant (p>0.05). Under the conditions of this study, addition of acetic acid as an organic acid into drinking water at the levels used could not affect the performance and ileal microbial counts of chickens.

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Formation of the two- and six-rowed types in barley is predominantly controlled by alleles at a single locus (vrs1) which is located in long arm of chromosome 2H. This gene is a key character on the study of barley domestication and yield. Near-isogenic lines (NILs) of barley were produced from crosses between Kanto Nakate Gold (tow-rowed) and Azumamugi (six-rowed). The selected lines were used for screening of AFLP polymorphic bands which are linked to vrs1 locus. After screening of a total of 1792 primer combination, five polymorphic bands were identified. A construction of high resolution map around the vrs1 locus was made using recombinant inbred lines. These markers can be used for a map-based cloning of the genes at the vrs1 locus.

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Two hundred Arian broiler chicks were used to investigate the effect of contents of dietary glucosinolates on performance of broiler chicks during starter (0-21 days of age) and grower periods (22-42 days of age) in a completely randomized design. The dietary glucosinolates contents in the starter period were 0 (S₁), 7.5 (S₂), 15 (S₃), 22.5 (S₄), 30 (S₅) µmol/g and in the grower period they were 0 (G₁), 5.7 (G₂), 11.4 (G₃), 17.1 (G₄), 22.8 (G₅) µmol/g. Feed intake during the grower period was affected (P<0.05) by different levels of glucosinolates in the diets and the lowest feed intake was observed in the G₅ treatment. The lowest body weight gains were observed in the S₅ and G₅ treatments during the starter and grower periods, respectively (P<0.05). The feed conversion ratio (FCR) in the S₅ treatment for the starter and the G₅ treatment for the grower period were significantly different (P<0.05) from other treatments. The correlation between the body weight gain and level of dietary glucosinolates or glucosinolate consumption was high during the starter (r = -95.3% and -94.7%, respectively) and relatively high (r = -69.5% and -72.4%, respectively) during the grower period. This experiment showed that the amount of glucosinolates in the diets of broiler chicks for the periods of starter and grower feeding system should not be more than 11.36 and 8.11µmol/g diet, respectively. Also during the starter and grower feeding periods, the highest level of rapeseed meal could be used in the broiler diets are 13 and 8 percent, respectively.

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To determine yield stability and to evaluate genotype interaction with environment interaction, 18 genotype of barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) and a control group were evaluated in a randomized complete block design with 4 replications in 3 successive years (1997-2000) at 10 research stations. Simple and combined analysis of variance revealed significant genetic differences between yield genotypes for grain yield. The results of combined analysis of variance indicated that genotypic and genotype were significant through interaction with environment. Therefore, different stability parameters including, environmental variance (S²_i), environmental coefficient of variation (C.V_i), mean of variance of interaction (θ_i), interaction variance (θ_i), equivalence ( W²_i), stability variance (σ²_i), linear regression coefficient (b_i, β_i), mean of squares of deviation from regression (S² _di) and years within location MS for a genotype, averaging over all locations (MS_y/l) were determined. Based on all the stability parameters, genotype 18 was known as the most stable one and genotypes 17 and 11 ranked lower. Genotype 5 with the highest yield was known to be the most adaptable one at fertile environments and is recommended for these locations. In addition, genotype 9 with good yield and low yield variance (1.58) and regression coefficient of less than 1 is suggested for unfertile locations.

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This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of different levels of energy and protein on the performance of male broiler breeder chicks. Three hundred and sixty day-old Arian male broiler breeder chicks were used in a 2×3 factorial experiment with two levels of metabolizable energy (3050 and 3200 Kcal/Kg) and three levels of protein and sulfur amino acids (110% NRC, NRC and 90% NRC) in a completely randomized design with four replicates per treatment. Results obtained from the whole of the experiment’s period (0-49 days of age) indicated that level of dietary energy had a significant effect on body weight and daily gain (P<0.05). Increasing of the energy levels from 3050 to 3200 kcal/kg increased body weight (2216g vs 2314g) and daily gain (45.2 vs. 47.2 g per day). Dietary energy level had no effect on feed intake, feed conversion and carcass components. Increasing of dietary protein significantly increased body weight and daily gain and decreased feed conversion and percentage of abdominal fat pad (P<0.05). The results of this study indicated that we can fed Arian male broiler breeder chicks by using diets containing 3200 Kcal ME/kg and protein and sulfur amino acid levels according to NRC recommendation or 10% higher during 0-21, 21-42 and 42-49 days of age and achieve suitable growth rate and body weight.

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This study was carried out to evaluate the duration of time of feeding starter and finisher diets on live performance and carcass characteristics of female broilers. Starter diet was fed to 14 or 21 days of age. Finisher diet was fed beginning at 35 or 42 days up to 49 days of age. The results indicated that reduction of duration of feeding starter diet reduced weight gain (P<0.0071) and impaired feed conversion ratio (P<0.0002) up to 21d. Reduction of time of feeding starter diet caused a decrease in body weight at 21d (P<0.0071) whereas it had no effect on body weights at 42 and 49 days. Increasing time of feeding finisher diet caused a drop of the weight gain (P<0.0076) and impaired feed conversion ratio (P<0.0001) up to 42d but these differences were not significant up to 49d, suggesting a catch-up growth during 42 to 49d. There was no significant effect of dietary treatments on carcass characteristics at 49 days of age. Lowering time of feeding starter diet and increasing time of feeding finisher diet caused a significant decrease in pH, moisture and nitrogen contents of the litter.

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The soil potassium status and effect of soil physical and chemical properties on it were investigated using 109 surface soils (0-30cm) from four regions in Guilan province. Neutral molar ammonium acetate extractable K (K-NH₄OAc), boiling molar nitric acid extractable K (K-HNO₃) and water soluble K were determined. Results showed that CEC and clay were normally frequency distributed while distribution frequency of other variables such as silt organic carbon and pH were not normal and have significant skew and kurtosis. In addition sand, K-NH₄OAc and K-HNO₃ has logarithmic normal distribution. Water-soluble potassium was affected by sand, pH, O.C and K-NH₄OAc (R²_a=0.73**). Ammonium extractable potassium was affected by soluble potassium, non-exchangeable potassium and CEC (R²_a=0.72**). Boiling nitric acid was affected by exchangeable potassium and silt (R²_a=0.55**). Geographic distribution of K-NH₄OAc data shows amount of it in central parts of Guilan, particularly Sepidrood river watershed is more than other regions. Fomanat region soils have the less clay, CEC, K-NH₄OAc and K-HNO₃. According this study about 68.8 percent of Guilan soils was classified in the range of medium to very low potassium status.