Showing 2432 results for Type of Study: Research
J. Ghaneiardakani, S.a. Mazhari, F. Ayati,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of agricultural activities on the soils of southern Mehriz by analyzing their geochemical composition and comparing the physicochemical properties of pistachio orchard soils (agricultural soils) with those of undisturbed natural soils. The results indicate that agricultural practices have led to an increase in Total Organic Carbon (TOC), averaging 1.5%, and a reduction in soil acidity. Additionally, phosphorus concentrations have risen in agricultural soils. These soils also exhibit enrichment in elements such as cadmium (Cd), antimony (Sb), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), scandium (Sc), and rare earth elements (REE) compared to natural soils, with a more homogenized REE distribution pattern. Although the concentrations of these trace elements remain within national environmental standards and below critical thresholds, the study highlights a significant increase in the bioavailability of heavy metals due to agricultural activity. This finding underscores a potential environmental risk if such changes are not properly managed in the future.
M. Khoshoei,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
The issue of water scarcity or the limited availability of water resources, including concepts such as water stress, water shortage, and water crisis, is investigated in this study. Water stress refers to problems related to access to freshwater resources, particularly due to the excessive withdrawal of surface and groundwater. A water crisis describes a situation where the available clean and safe drinking water in a specific region is insufficient to meet demand. Factors like drought, reduced rainfall, and pollution can exacerbate water stress. Water shortage arises from reasons such as the inability to meet demand, economic competition over water quality and quantity, conflicts among users, the irreversible depletion of groundwater resources, and negative environmental impacts. This study provides an index to assess water stress for spatial analysis in the study area and analyzes relevant data by collecting information from various sources. This index utilizes both static and dynamic parameters to estimate drought and better depict water stress conditions. Static parameters include land use, slope, and soil type. Dynamic parameters include precipitation, temperature, and groundwater level. Kashan County was selected as the case study due to the continuous reduction in water resources. The results showed that in the water years 2005, 2014, 2020, and 2021, Kashan experienced the highest level of water stress, while in the water years 2002, 2004, 2010, 2012, 2013, and 2015, it experienced the lowest level of water stress.
M. Askari Jabarabadi, N. Mirghaffari, J. Abedi Koopaei,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
The water footprint is an analytical tool that offers a better and more comprehensive view of how consumers or producers engage with freshwater consumption. Given the water crisis in the country, particularly in Isfahan Province, this study aims to estimate and compare the direct and indirect water footprints of several large industries, including Mobarakeh Steel, Iron Smelting, Refinery, and Power Plant, located in the Zayandeh River Basin. After identifying the desired objectives and study areas, as well as confirming the availability of the required data, information was gathered from the selected industries. Two methods were then utilized to aggregate the entire chain and the sum of steps to calculate the water footprint in the researched industries. According to the calculations, the direct and indirect water footprint in the iron smelting industry amounts to 196.9 cubic meters per ton of steel annually, of which 4.026 cubic meters is attributed to direct consumption and 17.5 cubic meters to indirect consumption. In a refinery, 18.80 liters of water are consumed directly and indirectly to produce one barrel of product (gasoline or diesel). Additionally, the direct and indirect water footprint of the Islamabad power plant is 1,198,320 cubic meters per terajoule, equating to 4.31 liters per kilowatt hour. The results of this study indicate that the indirect water footprint in the analyzed industries is equal to or exceeds direct water consumption, with both being equally significant. Finally, it is important to note that the results of this study can support decision-makers and policymakers in the industry, including those in the iron and steel, refinery, and power plant sectors, in managing their water footprint.
M. Asadi, M. Noshadi, A.r. Noshadi,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
In this research, drinking water quality was investigated using acceptability, health, and nutrition-based indicators from 2010 to 2022 in Shiraz City (Fars province). Magnesium, fluoride, and calcium play a significant role in the contribution of drinking water in Shiraz City to the intake of dietary minerals. The acceptability water quality index (AWQI), health-based water quality index (HWQI), and drinking water quality index (DWQI) rankings in Shiraz City are excellent, but the average drinking water nutritional quality index (DWNQI) of Shiraz City is 77.52 ± 5.47, which falls within the good ranking. Therefore, while the conventional water quality indices (AWQI, HWQI, and DWQI) are excellent, the DWNQI index does not achieve an excellent rating, due to the inclusion of the nutritional value of water in the DWNQI index. In general, the trend of AWQI, HWQI, DWQI, and DWNQI over thirteen years in Shiraz City shows that the conventional drinking water quality indices (AWQI, HWQI, and DWQI) do not provide an accurate picture of the assessment of drinking water quality in many cases, as they do not consider the nutritional role of water. For this reason, water is sometimes treated more than necessary. Therefore, it is essential to revise the interpretation of drinking water quality using the DWNQI index to gain a comprehensive picture of drinking water quality.
S.a. Ghaffari Nejad, F. Moshiri, S.m. Mousavi,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
This study was conducted to evaluate soil fertility management scenarios including separate use of chemical and organic fertilizers (animal manure and municipal waste compost) and their integrated application on changes in the amount of available nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in the soil from November 2017 for four years in six consecutive crops at the Agricultural Research Station of the Soil and Water Research Institute. The results showed a depletion of 14 and 44% of soil available nitrogen and phosphorus, and no depletion of available potassium in the treatment without fertilizer in six consecutive cultivations. Annual consumption of 20 t ha-1 of municipal waste compost and 75% of the recommended nitrogen showed the highest amount of soil-available nitrogen. Unlike phosphorus, the amount of soil available nitrogen in municipal waste compost treatments was significantly higher than in cattle manure. The highest available soil phosphorus was in the treatment with 10 t ha-1 of cattle manure before each crop, and the average available phosphorus in six consecutive cultivations was significantly higher than in the other treatments. The use of 10 t ha-1 of cattle manure and municipal waste compost before each crop resulted in the highest accumulation of potassium in the soil, respectively. The available soil potassium in cattle manure treatments was significantly higher than in municipal waste compost. The results of this experiment indicated the importance of using fertilizers containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in maintaining soil fertility stability in the long term.
R. Ghasemi Ghasemvand, M. Heidarnejad, A.r. Masjedi, A. Bordbar,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
the impact of hydraulic loss on the performance of weirs should not be overlooked. In this study, a laboratory flume measuring 8 meters in length, 0.6 meters in width, and 0.6 meters in height was used to investigate the hydraulic loss of the weirs and their discharge coefficients. The weirs used in this research were of the labyrinth type, featuring both curved and linear designs. Dimensional analysis using the Buckingham method indicated that the discharge coefficient (Cd) relies on parameters such as the hydraulic head ratio (Ht/P), weir shape factor (Sf), hydraulic loss ratio (Hf/P), and Froude number (Fr). The results demonstrated that an increase in hydraulic head leads to a decrease in the discharge coefficient of the weirs. Furthermore, the intensity of flow blade interference over the weirs gradually increases the hydraulic loss with a rising hydraulic head. Hydraulic loss increases up to a certain level of hydraulic head before beginning to decline. Therefore, it can be stated that the hydraulic loss curve for weirs like ARCL exhibits a sinusoidal trend. At a hydraulic head ratio of 0.4, the ARCL weir experiences 227% more hydraulic loss compared to the APKW weir. At a hydraulic head ratio of 0.6, the RCL weir shows 200% more hydraulic loss than the PKW weir. The trend of hydraulic loss variation with increasing Froude numbers for ARCL and RCL weirs is also sinusoidal. The ARCL weir shows the highest hydraulic loss with increasing Froude number compared to the other weirs. All weirs modeled using FLOW-3D software showed values (Cd and Hf/P) that exceeded those from physical modeling, which is significant in terms of safety factors. Moreover, the error rate in numerical modeling varied based on different parameters and conditions, averaging between 10% and 30%. In some cases, labyrinth weirs exhibited higher error rates compared to piano key weirs.
S. Rezaei, M. Heidarpour, A. Aghakhani,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
The growing concern for environmental protection and increasing demand for green approaches to address environmental problems have prompted researchers to explore a sustainable and reliable method for treating dyeing wastewater. One of the sustainable and reliable methods is the electrocoagulation process. In this study, a batch electrocoagulation reactor was designed to evaluate the efficiency of this process in treating dyeing wastewater. The effects of two parameters, electrode distance and retention time, on pollutant removal efficiency were investigated. Electrode distances of 2, 5, and 7 cm were tested, and retention times of 10, 15, 20, 25, and 30 minutes were examined. Results indicated that the optimal electrode distance was 5 cm and the optimal retention time was 20 minutes. Under these conditions, the removal efficiency of BOD, COD, TSS, color, and turbidity reached 83%, 85%, 98%, 98%, and 93%, respectively. The results of this research demonstrate the significant potential of the electrocoagulation system for treating dyeing wastewater.
M.r. Shoaibi Nobariyan, M.h. Mohammadi,
Volume 29, Issue 2 (7-2025)
Abstract
The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of solutes and water quality on evaporation amount and rate in two sandy and clayey soils. Soil samples containing aggregates and sand particles with diameters ranging from 0.5 to 1 millimeter were collected. Six columns were prepared during the experiment; three columns were filled with sandy soil and three with aggregated soil, each measuring 60 cm in height and 15.5 cm in inner diameter. One reference column was filled with distilled water. A saturated calcium sulfate solution was added to two columns, a 0.01 molar calcium chloride solution was added to two other columns, and distilled water was added to the remaining two. The amount of water lost through evaporation was recorded every 8 to 12 hours by weighing the columns. After approximately 130 days, the columns were sectioned, allowing for the establishment of moisture and solute concentration profiles for each soil column. The results indicated that the first and second stages of evaporation were distinguishable in sandy soil, whereas in clayey soil (aggregated soil), only the first stage of evaporation occurred due to the gradual transfer of water and the continuous hydraulic connection from the surface to the water table. The presence and type of solutes affected the evaporation rate and moisture profile, reducing evaporation and increasing water retention in deeper soil layers. Hydraulic connectivity (calcium sulfate > calcium chloride > distilled water) and the resulting capillary rise of and supply of evaporated water from higher layers caused a greater evaporation rate in the calcium sulfate compared to the calcium chloride and distilled water treatments in both soil types. Additionally, the formation of a salt crust on the soil surface due to solutes disrupted the hydraulic connection with the surface, resulting in decreased evaporation rates and cumulative evaporation.
A. Raisi Nafchi, J. Abedi Koupai, M. Gheysari, H.r. Eshghiazeh,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Rice is one of the most important crops and the primary food source for more than half of the world's population. The present study was conducted to compare the direct-seeded rice (DSR) of three rice varieties (Jozdan, Firuzan, and Sazandegi) using surface (DI) and subsurface (SDI) drip irrigation systems. The experiment was performed as a split–split plot arranged in a randomized complete block design with three replications in two years (2019 and 2020) in the research farm of Isfahan University of Technology in Najaf-Abad. According to the results of the variance analysis, the most suitable cultivar for DSR in the region (among the tested cultivars) is Sazandegi with a grain yield of 3400 kg/h-1. The results of this experiment showed that the amount of water consumed in DI was 20% less than in SDI. Also, DSR reduced water consumption by 40% compared to transplanted rice (TPR) in the region. However, the grain yield also decreased by about 45%.
M. Goosheh, A. Azadi,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Soil organic carbon provides conditions for better plant growth by increasing soil quality by improving physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. Therefore, an experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications at the Shavour Agricultural Research Station in Khuzestan Province to investigate the effect of different sources of organic matter on some soil properties and wheat yield. The main plots included cow manure, poultry manure, wheat straw, bagasse, and sugarcane filter cake, and the subplots included three fertilizer levels of 2.5, 5, and 10 tons per hectare. Also, one plot was considered as a control (without organic fertilizer) in each replication. The results showed that the best sources of organic fertilizer available in the province that have had a favorable result in increasing wheat yield and improving soil physical properties are filter cake, cow manure, and sugarcane bagasse fertilizers (with a yield of 4772, 4467, and 4452 kg/ha, respectively). Wheat straw also has the least effect on yield (4019 kg/ha) and plays a major role only in improving soil physical and chemical properties. It is worth noting that since no significant difference was observed between the fertilizer consumption amounts in the overall results, the consumption of 2.5 tons per hectare of each fertilizer source is more economical and is recommended. It also seems that the combined application of filter cake with sugarcane bagasse or cow or chicken manure with wheat straw and stubble, in a total amount of 2.5 tons per hectare, has a more favorable result in increasing wheat yield and improving soil physical properties.
M. Feyzolahpour, M. Ahmadi,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Drought is a hazard that can have widespread impacts on biodiversity, wildlife habitats, and ecosystem stability. The present study investigated the drought situation in the Bonab rural district. To assess the drought situation during the period 2013 to 2024, the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), Water Index (NDWI), Moisture Index (NDMI), Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (MSAVI), and Land Surface Temperature (LST) were used. The results showed that the maximum value of the NDWI index reached from 0.16 in 2013 to 0.14 in 2024, which indicates an intensification of drought. However, the maximum value of the NDVI increased from 0.53 in 2013 to 0.58 in 2024, and the value for the MSAVI index for the years 2013 and 2024 was 0.69 and 0.73, respectively. All indices except the NDWI index had a negative correlation with the LST index, and the MSAVI index had the highest negative correlation with a Pearson coefficient of -0.39 in 2013. The results are also consistent with the results obtained from the SVM model. It is also observed that the area of barren lands has decreased from 887 square kilometers in 2013 to 851 square kilometers in 2024.
J. Karami, M. Habibi Nokhandan, M. Azadi, A. Rashidi Ebrahim Hesari,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
The present study investigates shoreline changes along the southern Caspian Sea coast in Mazandaran Province over 24 years (2000-2023) using Landsat 8 and Sentinel-2 satellite imagery. The images were obtained from the USGS and Google Earth Engine platforms, and after geometric and radiometric corrections were processed using near-infrared and shortwave Infrared bands to accurately detect the boundary between land and water. Shorelines were visually extracted from the imagery and digitized for each time interval. Spatial variations in the shoreline were analyzed using the Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS) within the ArcGIS environment, applying statistical methods including Net Shoreline Movement (NSM), Shoreline Change Envelope (SCE), End Point Rate (EPR), and Linear Regression Rate (LRR). The results indicate a significant shoreline retreat in many areas of the study region, alongside a continuous decline in the Caspian Sea water level during the last decade. The integration of remote sensing analyses with atmospheric and hydrological data (temperature, precipitation, and river discharge) improved the accuracy of the results and suggests that the southern coastlines—particularly in Mazandaran—may experience more severe retreat by 2050, if current trends continue. These findings underscore the need for intelligent water resource management and the adoption of climate-adaptive policies in the region.
A. Akbarian Khalilabad, H. Karami, S. F. Mousavi,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
The reduction of soil permeability due to the sedimentation of suspended particles is a significant challenge to the efficient operation of artificial recharge systems. In this study, the effects of sediment concentration (0.5, 2, and 4 g/L), soil particle size, and vertical distribution on clogging processes were investigated using laboratory soil column experiments. The results showed a two-phase decrease in permeability: a rapid initial drop caused by the blockage of coarse pores during the first 10 minutes, followed by a second phase where the system reached a relative equilibrium. Higher sediment concentrations led to a faster decline and lower equilibrium values of permeability. Fine-grained soils, despite having lower initial permeability, demonstrated greater resistance to clogging, while coarse-grained soils experienced more severe reductions. Vertical analysis indicated that the most significant permeability loss occurred at a depth of 40-50 cm, while deeper layers showed increased permeability due to the limited penetration of suspended particles. These findings can inform the selection of appropriate materials, the design of subsurface layers in recharge basins, the prediction of system lifespan, and the regulation of sediment load in inflows to enhance the efficiency and sustainability of artificial recharge systems.
M. Golestani, S. F. Mousavi, H. Karami,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Groundwater is a vital resource for meeting drinking, agricultural, and industrial needs in arid and semi-arid regions of Iran. In this study, quantitative and qualitative changes in groundwater in the Garmsar Plain were modeled using GIS, MODFLOW, and MT3DMS software during the period 2011-2013. Spatial and climatic data were comprehensively processed and prepared in the GIS environment, and groundwater flow was simulated using the MODFLOW model, and water quality changes were analyzed using the MT3DMS model. After validation with field data from 2012 to 2013, the model showed acceptable accuracy with statistical indicators of mean absolute error (MAE) in the range of 0.4 to 0.5 meters and root mean square error (RMSE) between 0.5 and 0.6 meters. The modeling results showed that a 15% increase in water withdrawal led to a decrease in the water table of up to 8 meters, a constant withdrawal led to a decrease of 7 meters, and a 15% decrease in withdrawal led to a decrease of 5 meters in the water table. From a quality perspective, the decrease in withdrawal improved the quality of irrigation water but increased the concentration of some pollutants, which requires the development of effective management strategies to protect groundwater resources. The findings of this study illustrate the importance of sustainable exploitation and smart management of groundwater resources in the Garmsar Plain.
M. Shayannejad, E. Fazel Najafabadi, F. Hatamian Jazi,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Regarding the increasing need for water resources and the decline of surface water resources, awareness of these resources is a crucial need in planning, developing, and protecting them. This research was conducted to model the water quality index (the most widely used feature of determining water quality) using machine learning models (Random Forest and Support Vector Machine) in the Zayandehrood River. Regarding the large number of water quality indices, the NSFWQI index was used in this study. First, this index was calculated, and then, input data, including water quality characteristics of 8 stations over 31 years, and the river water quality index were used. In this research, 80% of the data was used in the training stage, and the remaining 20% was used in the evaluation stage. The optimal model was selected based on the evaluation criteria, including R2, CRM, and NRMSE. The results showed that the Support Vector Machine algorithm (0.931 < R² < 0.982, 1.321
A. Bagheri, A. Yadegari, K. Khaledi,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Wheat is a strategic crop, and boosting its production is vital. This study identifies key factors affecting wheat yield by estimating and selecting superior production functions. The research used panel data from crop years 1400-1385 in Isfahan province counties over 15 years, analyzed with EViews 10 software. Results showed water use had the greatest positive effect; a one percent water increase raised wheat yield by 0.41 percent on average. Cultivated area, fertilizer, seeds, and labor also had positive, significant effects. In contrast, air temperature had a negative effect, and agricultural machinery had no significant effect. Isfahan's arid climate and water's role in yield underscore the need for modern irrigation methods and better water use efficiency to improve production.
A.r. Jafarnejadi, A. Gilani, F. Meskini-Vishkaee, M. Hoseini Chaleshtori,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Rice, as one of the world's most strategic crops, plays a vital role in global food security. This study investigated the effects of different nutrition management approaches on yield and water productivity in dry direct-seeded rice cultivation (local Anbouri Red Dwarf cultivar) at Shavoor Research Station in Khuzestan Province. The experiment was conducted in a randomized complete block design with four treatments, including 1) Farmer's conventional practice, 2) Soil test-based fertilization, 3) Soil test-based fertilization + supplementary nutrition, and 4) 25% reduced chemical fertilizers + biofertilizers, with three replications. Results demonstrated that the supplementary nutrition (4270 kgha-1) and biofertilizer with 25% chemical fertilizer reduction (4356 kgha-1) treatments increased yield by 17% and 19.3 %, respectively, compared to conventional practice (3651 kgha-1). This improvement was primarily attributed to increased panicles per m² (10-14%) and enhanced nutrient uptake efficiency. The biofertilizer treatment also showed the highest water productivity (0.25 kg m-³) and the best benefit-cost ratio (23.25). Economic analysis confirmed that combining biofertilizers with 25% chemical fertilizer reduction significantly reduced costs while maintaining yield. These findings suggest that integrating soil testing with either biofertilizers or stage-specific nutrition represents an effective strategy for enhancing yield, improving water use efficiency, and reducing dependence on chemical inputs in dry-seeded rice cultivation. These methods can be recommended as sustainable models for farmers in arid regions like Khuzestan, which face salinity challenges and water resource limitations.
M. Tahvilian, S. Eslamian, A.r. Gohari, M. Jamali,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Time of concentration (Tc) is one of the key parameters in hydrological studies, playing a critical role in flood control structure design, runoff simulation, and water resource management. This study evaluates the performance of seven empirical equations—Bransby-Williams, California, Giandotti, Kirpich, Pilgrim, Rational Hydrograph (SCS), and Carter—in estimating Tc across 35 sub-watersheds in Khuzestan Province, Iran. To assess the accuracy, six sub-watersheds with reliable rainfall-runoff data were selected, and observational Tc values were calculated. The estimated results from the empirical formulas were then compared with observed data using statistical indices such as RMSE, ME, and the Nash–Sutcliffe Efficiency (NSE). The findings revealed that the Kirpich equation provided the most accurate and reliable estimates, with RMSE = 2 hours, ME = 0.44 hours, and NSE = 0.91. Subsequently, all seven models were applied to estimate Tc for the remaining sub-watersheds. Finally, a concentration time zoning map was generated, which can serve as a practical tool for hydraulic design, flood risk analysis, and optimal water resource planning in Khuzestan Province.
H. Rezazadeh, P. Alamdari, S. Rezapour, M. S. Askari,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Soil quality assessment plays a crucial role in sustainable land management, particularly in degraded areas such as saline and sodic soils. This study aimed to determine the spatial distribution of the Soil Quality Index (SQI) in saline and sodic soils around Lake Urmia using two geostatistical interpolation methods: Kriging and Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW). A total of 82 soil samples were collected from a depth of 0–30 cm, and 24 physical, chemical, and heavy metal properties were analyzed. The Soil Quality Index was calculated based on both linear and non-linear approaches. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was used to identify a Minimum Data Set (MDS), including: calcium carbonate equivalent, EC, clay percentage, BD, silt percentage, organic carbon, Pb, and cadmium, which explained more than 78% of the total variance. The results indicated that the SQI showed moderate spatial variability across the study area, with a decreasing trend from west to east. Comparison of the interpolation methods revealed that Kriging performed better in the linear model, while IDW showed higher accuracy in the non-linear approach. The best-fitted theoretical model was spherical, with a range of influence varying between 6,130 and 20,610 meters. Overall, integrating the Soil Quality Index with geostatistical methods provides a powerful tool for understanding spatial variability and supporting effective planning in saline and sodic soils.
N. Haseli Nasrabadi, R. Modarres, S. Soltani,
Volume 29, Issue 3 (10-2025)
Abstract
Floods are among the most frequent and destructive natural disasters worldwide, causing significant damage to human infrastructure and the environment each year. This study aims to assess the direct damages caused by flooding using the HEC-FIA model in the Semirom watershed. In the first step, flood inundation maps were generated using the HEC-RAS model based on digital elevation model (DEM) data, hydrological inputs, and Manning’s roughness coefficients under both steady and unsteady flow conditions. These maps were then converted into a format compatible with the HEC-FIA software and integrated with economic, land use, and population data to estimate flood damages. The economic database included updated information on agricultural, horticultural, residential, and industrial land uses, partly obtained through field surveys. The flood event of March 11, 2006, was selected as the base flood, and damage analyses were performed for various return periods. The results indicated that the agricultural sector suffered the most damage. In the base year flood, agricultural damages exceeded 821 billion IRR, while structural damages were estimated at approximately 3 billion IRR. In the 1000-year return period, agricultural damages rose to 1,427 billion IRR, and structural damages increased to 44 billion IRR. Analysis of shorter return periods showed a significant decrease in damages, with no structural damage observed in the 10-year return period or less, although agricultural areas remained vulnerable. The findings suggest that the HEC-FIA model has a high capability in estimating direct flood damages across spatial and temporal scales and can serve as an effective tool for flood risk management and planning.
