JWSS - Journal of Water and Soil Science

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The calcification of soils and the effects of topography on this process were studied in semi-arid regions of Kermanshah. From a toposequence, based on the previous soil surveys of the region, five profiles were selected, and field studies and laboratory analyses were carried out on soils. Alluvial - colluvial fans, piedmont alluvial plains, and old plateaux were three main physiographies on the selected toposequence. Soil moisture and temperature regimes were Xeric and Thermic, respectively. The results indicate that redistribution of carbonates and soil formation processes may be categorized in four specific stages to be described in the text. Accumulation of calcium carbonates in soil profiles showed two basic forms: one in sandy layers of fine - textured soil profiles under the influence of abrupt textural changes and lower permeability, and the second in subsurface horizons of soils with calcareous parent material. The morphological evidences showed that in addition to translocation from upper horizons of carbonates by solution and suspension, physical movements to subsurface layers of fine calcareous materials have also affected the formation of calcic horizons. In other words, CaCO3 may have moved as fine particles through soil cracks and subsequently accumulated in the lower horizons. Soil mineralogy showed considerable amounts of illite, Chlorite, smectite and palygorskite clay minerals. Some pedogenic transformations of illite and chlorite may have caused formation of smectite and palygorskite.

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This study addresses the methodology of studying spatial variability of soil salinity. The information used is based on a semi-detailed soil survey, followed by a free survey, conducted in Ramhormoz, Khuzestan. The study of soil salinity variations was carried out using about 600 sampling points with an average distance of 500 m, at three depths of 0-50, 50-100, and 100-150 cm. To determine the spatial variability of soil salinity at different depths, the variogram which is a statistical function for the spatial variability analysis of the geographical variables was used. The results indicate that all variograms show almost the same range of 12 - 13 km which is closely related to the geographical distribution of the soil parent materials in the area. Ordinary block kriging was used to map salinity at different depths for a block dimension of 500 × 500 m. A comparison between the kriged estimates and the soil salinity map, produced during the soil survey, showed that the overall similarity between the test data and the classified kriging estimates was 40%, while the overall agreement between the test data and the soil survey salinity map was 36%. A detailed similarity calculation showed that the reliability of the classified kriging estimates representing the lowest salinity classes (S0, S1) is larger (75%) than the reliability of the soil survey salinity map representing these classes (50%). Consequently, the results indicate that geostatistical tools can be used to support the present-day procedures of soil salinity mapping.

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Twenty-two surface soil samples (0-20 cm) from Fars province were extracted by five extractants (i.e., DTPA, 1.5 M NH₄H2PO₄, 0.1 NH₃PO₄, 0.05 MNa2EDTA, and 1% Na₂EDTA) and used in a 7-week greenhouse experiment which was a 22 × 3 factorial with 22 soils (clay 16-63% pH 7.8-8.2 electrical conductivity 0.32-1.78 dS m^-1 calcium carbonate equivalent 28-63% organic matter 1.1-4.9% cation exchange capacity 9-27 cmol kg^-1 and DTPA-extractable Mn 4-24 mgkg^-1), 3 levels of applied Mn (0, 10, 20 mg Mn kg^-1 as manganese sulfate), 3 replications, and soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr., cv. Williams]. Application of Mn significantly increased top dry weight by 4 to 104%, averaging to about 12% over the control. But the increase in Mn concentration was not significant. Total Mn uptake also significantly increased but the apparent recovery of the applied Mn was very low (i.e., 0.05%). Soil pH, calcium carbonate equivalent, and clay content were found to be the properties influencing the extractability of Mn. The DTPA-extractable Mn, alone (with a critical level of 13 mg Mn kg^-1) or along with some soil properties, was the only form of Mn that could reasonably predict the plant responses.

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This study aims to determine the effects of storage period and egg weight on albumen pH and hatchability of hatching eggs. For this purpose, the eggs produced by native breeder hens (28 - 31 weeks of age) were used in a completely randomized design with a 3 × 8 factorial arrangement. The main factors were 3 egg weight ranges (46 - 49, 50 - 52 and 53 - 56) and 8 storage periods (1, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18 and 21 days). Temperature and relative humidity of storage room was 16 ± 1.5 °C and 75 - 85%, respectively. Storage period had significant effects on albumen pH (P < 0.001), hatchability (P < 0.001), chick weight (P < 0.001), chick weight as a percentage of egg weight (p < 0.01) and late embryonic mortality (15 - 21 days of incubation) (P < 0.05). As the storage period increased from one to twenty-one days, hatchability of fertile eggs decreased from 89.4% to 42.7%, albumen pH, chick weight, chick weight as a percentage of egg weight and late embryonic mortality also increased from 9.25, 34.8 gr, 67.5% and 5.19% to 9.49, 35.9 gr, 70.1% and 42.7%, respectively. Egg weight of hatching eggs also was significantly related to hatchability (P < 0.05), chick weight (P < 0.001), chick weight as a percentage of egg weight (P < 0.01) and late embryonic mortality (P < 0.05). Heavy eggs (53 - 56 gr) had lower hatchability than medium and small weight groups (64.2% Vs. 68 and 69.5%, respectively). As the weight of hatching eggs increased, chick weight (p < 0.001), chick weight as a percentage of egg weight (P < 0.01) and late embryonic mortality (P < 0.05) also increased. The results indicate that, under the conditions of this experiment (16 ± l.5 °C and 75-85% relative humidity), highest hatchability can be obtained with eggs of medium weight range and storage periods of less than three or four days.

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This research was conducted over a period of one year from the beginning of spring until mid autumn in 1996, during the bloom of all flowering plants in the region, when pollinator bees were collected with insect veil. Some of them were preserved in 80% ethylalcohol and some were dried, coded, kept in insect box and transferred to the laboratory for identification. The collected insects were identified to 7 families and 19 genera as follows 37 species from among them were identified to species level and 40 species were identified to genus level:

 1- Colletidae: Colletes (Colletes sp.)

2- Andrenidae: Andrena (A. thoracica, A. labialis, A. apicata, A. personata, A. erytrogaster, A. kalmiae, Andrena sp.), Melitturga (M. clavicornis, M. sp.)

3- Halictidae: Halictus (H. brunescens, H. senilis, H. squamosus, H. asperulus, H. resurgens), Lasioglossum (L. discum, L. epipygial, L. nigripes, L. villosulum, L. pygmaeum), Nomia (Nomia sp.).

4- Melittidae: Melitta (M. leporina)

5- Megachilidae: Megachile (M. rotundata, M. maritima, M. concina, M. frigida), Chalicodoma (C. georgica, C. rubripes, Chalicodoma sp.), Osmia (O. cornifrons, O. taurus, O. uncinata), Anthidium (A. florentinum, Anthidium sp.)

6- Anthophoridae: Anthophora (Anthophora sp.), Amegilla (A. quadrifasciata, A. albigena, Amegilla sp.), Eucera (E. nitidiventris), Tetralonia (Tetralonia sp.), Xylocopa (X. iranica, X. valga, X. pubescens, Xylocopa sp.), Proxylocopa (P. nitidiventris, P. rufa, Proxylocopa sp.)

7- Apidae: Apis (A. mellifera), Bombus (Bombus sp.)

 A key to the separate genera level and a complete key to the genera level for the Apoidea is produced and presented for each of the above named families collected in the north of Fars province.

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The effects of three levels of soil moisture content (10 - 12, 13 - 15 and 16 - 18% d.b.) and three levels of plowing depth (15, 20 and 25 cm) on draft, specific draft, and drawbar power requirements of a 3 - bottom disk plow and on soil pulverization and inversion in a clay loam soil were investigated. The experimental design was a randomized complete block design with a 3 × 3 factorial. Except in soil inversion, the effect of soil moisture on all of the performance parameters mentioned, was highly significant. Mean values of draft, specific draft and drawbar power requirements and clod mean weight diameter were minimized at 13 - 15% and 16 - 18% soil moisture contents, respectively. The effect of plowing depth was highly significant only on draft and drawbar power requirement of disk plow, in such a way that the mean values of these two parameters were significantly increased with plowing depth, while specific draft showed only a mild decreasing trend. In order to provide a quantitative index to express the degree of soil pulverization by tillage implements, a tractor-pulled rotary sieve was designed and fabricated. With this apparatus, in-field determination of soil clod mean weight diameter (MWD) following plowing was possible. The results showed that the effect of soil moisture content on MWD was highly significant, such that, plowing at 10-12% moisture content produced the largest clods, whereas the effect of plowing depth on MWD was not significant. The decreasing trend of MWD with soil moisture content persisted to the highest moisture level studied (16 - 18%), in which the average clod MWD (33.8 mm) was about 72% smaller than those formed at 10-12% moisture content. The effects of plowing depth and soil m. c. on soil inversion by disk plow were not significant and the overall soil inversion was about 54% which was in agreement with those reported by other researchers.

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The effectiveness of Buprofezin (40% SC) and Pyriproxifen (10% EC) on the mortality of nymphal stages and fecundity of cottony cushion scale was investigated under glasshouse conditions. The LC₅₀ of IGRs was also determined for the first nymphal stage. Two applications were conducted at intervals of 1 day prior to introduction of crawlers and 42 days after infestation. The results indicated that Buprofezin was superior to Pyriproxifen in suppressing the growth and development of crawlers. The mortality of first instars was determined 28 days after the first application. Although the total mortality of second instars due to Pyriproxifen was higher than that by Buprofezin, but the cummulative mortality of 1000 ppm treatment was estimated to be 100% in both experiments after 42 days. The effect of Buprofezin on incomplete molting of nymphs and its ovicidal activity showed a decreasing rate in third instar nymphs survival and fecundity of cottony cushion scale in relation to different concentrations of the IGRs, but it never reached 100%. Meanwhile the 1000 ppm concentration of Pyriproxifen in the same treatments brought about complete mortality to third instar nymphs and inhibited adult and egg formation due to imbalanced juvenile hormone activity. However in 1 ppm concentration of Pyriproxifen, a noticeable increase in fecundity of cottony cushion scale was observed.

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The reproductive development stage is a crucial stage in plant life to study the potential of plant yield. Salt tolerance in this stage is desirable to obtain a stable and high yield. A Cynodon dactylon population from America (Cyn3, London Univ. Collection), was suitable to study the detached immature inflorescence in booting stage on liquid medium. The detached inflorescenes were cultured on a liquid medium prepared with or without various supplements of NaCl (0 to 2%) and kinetin concentrations. The sequence of morphological events of spike development in vitro, and the effects of NaCl on spikelet opening, embryo sac growth, fertilization and caryopsis development were studied. The liquid medium supplemented with 10^-7 M kinetin resulted in natural caryopsis development. Supplementing NaCl to the liquid medium had deteriorating effects on the embryo sac development and resulted in the production of abnormal caryopses. The abnormal caryopses were smaller in diameter with a more fragile pericarp. However, a small number of spikelets grown in liquid medium, supplemented with low salt concentration up to 5%, produced normal caryopses and germinated well on soaked filter paper in petri dishes at appropriate conditions.

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Effect of different sources of fat on performance of broiler chicks was studied. Three hundred and thirty six chicks were divided into 42 groups of 8 chicks per group. Seven isoenergetic and isonitrogenous diets, mainly based on corn and soybean meal were prepared and fed. These treatments were as follows: corn + soybean meal + (5% tallow, 5% cotton seed crude oil, 5% cotton seed soapstock, 2.5% tallow + 2.5% crude oil, 2.5% tallow + 2.5% soapstock, or 2.5% crude oil + 2.5% soapstock). One control diet without any source of fat was also included. Results showed that average feed intake of diets with different sources of fat up to 56 days old, was not differed from control group. Different sources of fat and their combinations increased weight gain and improved feed conversion. But soapstock had no effect on performance. Added fats increased abdominal fat of chickens. Therefore, if is concluded that on the contrary to soapstock, tallow and crude oil enhanced performance of broiler chickens.

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This experiment was conducted to study egg production traits in a flock of native fowl from Isfahan region and their crosses with three improved exotic breeds. Sexual maturity (SM), weight of the first egg (WFE), number of eggs (EP), egg weight (EW), feed intake (FI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were recorded individually during laying period up to 52 weeks of age. There were no significant differences (P < 0.05) in WFE between the four groups, but the difference between the four genetic groups was highly significant (P < 0.01) for SM, EP, EW, FI and FCR. During laying period, pooled coefficients of heritability (sire component) for SM, WFE, EP, EW, FI and FCR were estimated to be 0.24 ± 0.10, 0.03 ± 0.08, 0.41 ± 0.12, 0.48 ± 0.12, 0.13 ± 0.09 and 0.18 ± 0.09, respectively. In combined analysis, part record egg production (SM to 34 weeks of age) was positively correlated (genetically and phenotypically) with EP up to 52 weeks of age (r_g = 0.74 ± 0.11, r_p = 0.71). The values suggested that there is a relatively appropriate relationship in the combined groups analysis. In addition, EP up to 34 weeks of age was negatively correlated with FCR during the same period (r_g = -0.92 ± 0.53, r_p = -0.81).The estimated genetic and phenotypic correlation in this study suggested that selection based on part record egg production can not only be used successfully to improve EP during full record, but may also cause a better laying performance during laying period.

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To estimate heritability, and genetic and phenotypic relationships and also to study the effect of sex and rearing environment on body weight, weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion coefficient, the data from 1200 pedigreed male and female chickens from three genetic groups including 90 sires were used. The included genetic groups were crosses of native chickens and an exotic breed (group A), native chickens which were selected for two generations on the basis of 8th week body weight (group B) and a control group of native chickens (group C). All the chicks were reared up to four weeks of age on the ground in separated pens according to their sire groups. In order to calculate feed conversion coefficient, 498 chicks were placed in individual cages during four to ten weeks of age. The results showed that the cross group (A) compared to the other two groups had a higher body weight at 2, 3, 6, 8 and 10 weeks of age. Weight gain, feed conversion coefficient and consumption at periods of 4-6, 6-8, 8-10 and 4-10 weeks were also higher in the cross group. Genetic groups B and C, in spite of better performance of group B for most of the traits, did not have any significant differences for the compared traits. Estimated heritabilities on the basis of sire variance component showed that these traits were medium to highly heritable. Estimated heritabilities for feed consumption at different ages ranged from 0.15 to 0.44 which at any age was lower than that estimated for feed conversion coefficient. Genetic and phenotypic correlations between growth traits were positive and, in most of the cases, high. Correlations between nutritional traits at different ages were variable.

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Limited time for crop residue decomposition and complete seedbed preparation in double-cropping necessitates reduced tillage which is associated with its shortcomings. Information about seedbed preparation aspects in double-cropping of wheat and mungbean in Isfahan is lacking. For this reason, the effects of various seedbed preparation methods on growth, seed yield and yield components of mungbean (experimental line 1-61-16) were studied in a wheat-mungbean double-cropping system during 1996 at the Agricultural Research Station, Isfahan University of Technology. Two residue management treatments (burned and nonburned) along with four tillage systems: moldboard plow, disk, khischee and no-till were laid out in a strip plot design within a randomized complete block design with four replications. Improved establishment and plant growth conditions associated with burning residue treatment significantly increased plant density, above ground plant weight, number of nodes per branch, plant height, number of pods per main stem and per square meter, number of seeds per pod on main stem and on branches, number of seeds per main stem, seed yield, biological yield and harvest index. Higher plant density in this treatment resulted in significant reduction in the number of branches and number of pods per branch. Desirable conditions for establishment and growth in disk and moldboard plow treatments significantly increased plant density, above ground plant weight, number of pods per main stem and per square meter, number of seeds per pod on main stem and on branches, number of seeds per main stem, seed yield, biological yield and harvest index. No-till treatment produced the least results in respect to the above traits. The results indicated that burning residues with disk tillage system might be an appropriate seedbed preparation method under conditions similar to this experiment.

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In vitro salt tolerance of 28 cultivars of durum wheat with native and exotic origins was investigated, using MS medium containing sodium chloride. The resulting calli were subjected to 8 salinity levels including 0, 0.3, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, 1.5 and 1.8 percent NaCl (w/v). Donor plants of explant (immature embryo) were grown in a recirculating hydroponics and pots in a greenhouse as well as in the field. Assessment of calli was conducted after 0, 8 and 16 days after subculture of calli into the NaCl-contained medium. Callus growth rate, relative callus growth rate and percentages of callus necrosis were measured, using a 8 × 28 factorial experiment layout in a completely randomized design with 3 observations per treatment and 3 replications. Results of analysis of variances showed that among the criteria, relative growth rate of callus was the most reliable, while callus growth rate as not being quantitatively measured, was less devoted. Results of this study revealed that 'PI 40100' and 'Dipper-6' were superior genotypes for in vitro salt tolerance. The high relative callus growth rate and less callus necrosis of these cvs. may indicate their superior genetic potential for in vitro salinity tolerance.

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The analysis of the EC data set indicated that the spatial distribution of EC data of different depths are closely related to one another. It means that they are spatially cross correlated on one another and can be considered to be co-regionalized. It also implies that EC values at a particular depth contain useful information about the other depths which can be used to improve their estimation. In this research, we aimed to investigate the effects of using relevant ancillary information in the estimation procedure. To do this, cokriging was used. To evaluate this algorithm as a potential tool for mapping EC, its performance on the independent test data was evaluated and compared with the results obtained from studies using kriging. The results of the co-regionalization of EC at different depths indicated that cokriging the salinity data, although more rigorous from theoretical point of view, displayed no advantage over independent ordinary kriging at each depth. The results confirmed that cokriging improves little over ordinary kriging if the primary and auxiliary variables are almost equally sampled and all the variograms are identical. Also, ordinary kriging showed to be quite self-consistent since the predicted average salinity profile over the three depths was almost identical to the one predicted by cokriging. Considering the complexity of the cokriging and the LMC modeling, it is clear that there is no gain in using co-regionalization.

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Studies on sustainable agricultural have not paid adequate attention to farmers' behaviour regarding sustainability. The objectives of this research were: 1) to determine the relationship between socio-economic and farming factors with “sustainable agricultural knowledge”, 2) to predict “sustainable agricultural knowledge” based on socio-economic and farming factors, and 3) to determine the relationship between sustainable agricultural knowledge and sustainability of farming systems. A survey research was used with a multi-stage cluster sampling technique to collect data for the study. In the first stage, 39 villages were selected in Fars Province. Then 200 wheat producers were randomly selected in these villages for interview. The findings indicated that there was a significant and positive correlation between “sustainable agricultural knowledge” with level of literacy, achievement motivation, amount of total wheat production, technical knowledge about wheat production, economic condition, wheat farming model, amount of supervision by Agricultural Service Centers, and educational services provided by extension agents. Stepwise multiple regression indicated that technical knowledge about wheat production, achievement motivation, type of land revenue system, level of literacy and wheat farming model (independent variables) explained more than 50 percent of variability in “sustainable agricultural knowledge”. There was no significant correlation between “sustainable agricultural knowledge” and “sustainability of farming systems”. Possible reasons for this lack of relationship have been discussed. Based on the findings of this study, recommendations are provided towards achieving a more sustainable agricultural system.

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Biological activity and making use of sage essential oil in different industries depend on the chemical composition of the essential oil which is itself affected by several factors. In order to study the quality and quantity of the essential oil during growth stages, samples of the plant were gathered. The essential oil was extracted through steam distillation from the different plant parts separately. Volatile parts were analyzed with GCMS instrument. The study showed that the quality and quantity of the chemicals from different parts of the plant were not the same: Alpha-thujone and Beta-thujone as two important compounds were the lowest in the leaves of sage at flowering stage (1.2%, 3%, respectively). The study also showed that the quantity of Camphor (2.9%), Cineole (2%), Alpha-thujone (6.4%) and Beta-thujone (1.6%) in the essential oil of aerial parts of the plant were lower than the international standards (33%, 10%, 16% & 2%, respectively).

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Barley consumption is limited in broiler chicken diet due to their β. glucanas polysaccharide content. The application of synthetic enzymes in poultry diet can increase the barley content. The purpose of this experiment is to study the effect of enzyme supplement-β-glucanas on the performance of broiler chickens, percentage of abdominal fat, intestine weight and economic evaluation of production of one kilogram of meat in diets including different levels of barley and corn. Five hundred forty-one-day-old commercial broiler chickens (Arian) were divided into 45 groups, 12 chickens per group Each one of the 15 experimental diets, in which barley was substituted for corn at levels 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% with 2 levels of enzymes (0.025 and 0.05%) was fed to 3 groups of chickens for 49 days. All diets were isoenergetic and isonitrogenous. Plant oil was used to make diets isoenergetic. The results showed that the rate of weight increase of broiler chickens decreased as each level of free enzyme barley was replaced at 0.83, 6.08, 12.9, 16.1 %, respectively. The weight gain of the chickens fed with diets including a large amount of barley and 0.05% enzyme didn’t have any significant difference (P < 0.01) with the control group. The chickens fed with diet including barley and 0.025% enzyme didn’t have any significant difference either (except at 75% and 100% barley replacements). Enzyme supplementary at 0.025% and 0.05% levels (especially at 0.05%) caused significant improvement (P < 0.01) in food consumption and feed conversion ratio of chickens fed with diets including barley. Analysing the carcass of these chickens showed that the enzyme used at both levels, especially at 0.05 %, caused a significant decrease (P < 0.01) in abdominal fat (3.62% vs. 4%). It was also seen that the weight of chickens fed with enzyme decreased significantly (P < 0.01) in comparison with chickens fed with free enzyme barley diets (9.57% vs. 14.81 %). The economic calculation results of producing meat in this experiment pointed out that using barley and corn caused reduction in production expenses. The general results of this study showed that barley with enzyme is a suitable replacement for enzyme and further that 0.05% level of enzyme is better than 0.025% level due to its performance and better economic results.

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In spite of different reports about the inheritance of cotyledon colour in lentil, the precise nature of this phenomenon is unknown. In a comprehensive study, conducted in 1993-96 on inheritance of morphological markers in lentil, two types of green colour, light green and dark-green lentils, were distinguished for the first time. The dark-green showed monogenic and the light-green showed digenic inheritance. To explain this, involvement of three genes, Dg, Y and B in the inheritance of cotyledon colour were considered. At the dominant state of gene Dg, the genes Y and B produce yellow and brown pigments, respectively. At the recessive state (dg dg), no pigment will be produced and the dark-green colour will appear. If gene Dg acts normally (dominant state), but both genes Y and B are at recessive state (Dg-yybb), again no pigment will be produced and cotyledons will be of light-green colour.

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Stickiness and pastiness after cooking is one of the basic problems of macaroni production technology. Investigation of the factors affecting stickiness and pastiness of Iranian Macaroni is essential. The purpose of this research was to study the effects of percentage of gluten in the flour as well as extruder and drying temperatures on the macaroni quality. The factors studied are as follows:

1- Percentages of flour gluten at levels of 8.5, 10.5, 12.5 and 14.5 prepared by adding gluten to the macaroni flour purchased from the market.

2- Temperature of the dough discharged from the extruder (three levels: 48, 58 and 68 °C) obtained through changing the temperature of the water used in making the dough, circulation and noncirculation water in extruder jacket, and changing the rotational speed of extruder screw and increasing dough retention time.

3- Drying temperature (two levels: 50 and 62 °C) obtained through changing the number of burners in the heating system and using electrical heaters in the drying cabinet.

 The results of the e:xperiments and their evaluation are as follows: using flour with a gluten percentage of 12.5 or 14.5 (12.5% gluten is preferred for economic reasons) with an extruder temperature of 48 °C and a drying temperature of 62 °C will improve the macaroni quality. This treatment resulted in the production of macaroni with less stickiness, pastiness and cooking loss.

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Variability of seed storage protein electrophoretic patterns revealed by SDS-Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and their possible relations with some morphological and phenological characteristics were studied using 193 accessions from Iran Mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek) Collection. Seed protein electrophoresis revealed six different patterns that were different in two albumin and four globulin subunits with molecular weights of 23500-34000. Pattern types 1 and 2 had a considerable frequency but pattern types 3, 4, 5 and 6 had low frequencies and probably had developed recently in mungbean evolution process. Cluster analysis of countries and cities using the frequencies of albumin and globulin subunits showed no relation between geographical diversity and similarity distances. The correlations of morphological traits and albumin and globulin subunits indicated a relationship between G1 and G2 subunits with 1000 seed weight and days to beginning of maturity. Therefore, selection based on protein patterns at preliminary stages of breeding programs might be effective in increasing seed yield together with earliness.