JWSS - Journal of Water and Soil Science

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Small honeybee (Apis florea) is one of the common species in Iran. Apis florea lives in southern Iran and plays an important role in the polination of plants in this region. In a series of studies during the years 1997-1998, the genetic populations of the Iranian small honeybee and the effects of geographic and climatic conditions on the morphological variation and separation of Iranian small honeybee were investigated. For this purpose, 400 samples of worker bees from 40 colonies from 26 cities in 9 provinces were collected and twelve morphological characters were measured, using Ruttner method (1978). To determine geographical and climatological variables, average values collected by synoptic stations and other meteorological stations of Iran Meteorological Organization were used. The principal components analysis was used in the statistical analysis of the data obtained. The results show that there exist two distinct groups of small honeybee populations in Iran. Southwest of Iran hosts a class of bigger bees forming one distinct group while southeast of Iran hosts smaller bees forming the second group. Latitude has a positive correlation with size of body, wings and legs. Amount of precipitation has a nagative correlation with size of body, wings and legs. Temperature, wind speed. relative humidity, freezing days and other parameters did not show any correlations with size of body. The results from this research proved that the more northern areas with higher altitudes and more precipitation have bigger honeybees. This finding is in accordance with the Bergman law about other animals.

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In order to study the nectar quantity and quality of some onion cultivars and honeybees foraging activity on them, a complete randomized block design with three replications was conducted. Ten selected onion cultivars consisting of Ghom, Kashan, Azarshahr, Dorcheh, Tarom, Kazeroon 1, Kavar, Abarkooh, Hurand, and Yellow Sweet Spanish were used. Sixty mm mother bulbs of different onion cultivars were planted in 3×4 m plots on 6 lines. The distance between rows was 35 cm and plants were spaced 25 cm apart on each row. At flowering time, bees’ activity on the inflorescences was studied and flower nectar was collected in 10 micro-liter capillary tubes. Nectar volume was determined and analyzed. Mean numbers of honeybees visiting on inflorescence every 10 minutes and the mean residing time of each honeybee on a seed stalk (inflorescence) were significantly different in different cultivars. Hurand flowers had the least number of visitors and Dorche flowers had the longest visiting time. The amount of nectar varied in different cultivars, so did glucose (G), fructose (F), and sucrose (S) contents. Except for the Abarkuh cultivar that had more glucose than it had other sugars, all the cultivars had higher quantities of fructose than they had other sugars while sucrose had the least quantities among the sugars. Nectar sugar ratio in most of the cultivars was hexose dominant, which was identified by the low S/(F+G) ratio. Potassium, calcium, and sodium contents in nectar were different in different cultivars, too. Finally, the results showed that foraging activity of honeybees on onion inflorescences depends on the interactions of several factors such as nectar quantity and, more importantly, on sugar quantity and ratio as well as potassium content. .

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In a completely randomized design with 3×5 factorial arrangement, the metabolizable energy and nutrients digestibility of three varieties of sorghum grains (low, medium and high tannin) with and without supplemental phytase were determined and was compared with corn and wheat. Three varieties of sorghum were selected from the 36 varieties according to their tannin content and were grown togther with corn and wheat under the same environmental conditions. Supplemental phytase was added at three levels (0.0, 500 and 1000 FTU/kg) to each grain. The metabolizable energy (ME) and nutrients digestibilities were determined by the mature male Leghorn with the method of Sibbald. The results indicated that different grains had different ME, apparent and true digestibilities regarding dry matter, nitrogen and phosphorus. Medium tannin sorghum had the highest apparent and true metabolizable (AME and TME) energy, whereas the high tannin sorghum showed the lowest AME and TME. The apparent and true dry matter digestibilities of corn was more than the other grains (P<0.001). Medium tannin sorghum had the highest apparent and true nitrogen digestibilies than the other two varieties (P<0.001). Difference between tested grains regarding apparent and true phosphorus digestibilities were not significant. All measured criteria were the lowest for the high tannin sorghum. Adding 500 FTU/Kg phytase caused an improvement (P<0.001) in AME, apparent and true dry matter digestibilities and true nitrogen digestibility. Although added phytase improved apparent and true phosphorus digestibilities and true nitrogen digestibility, but the differences were not significant. The differences between 500 and 1000 units phytase was not significant and the results indicated that 500 FTU/Kg phytase was sufficient to improve the nutritional value of grains under study.

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The predatory beetle Cybocephalus fodori minor has recently been reported in Iran. Also few studies have been reported on life cycle of Cybocephalus beetles, especially on that of C. f. minor. Thus, the life cycle and feeding rate of this predatory beetle was studied on pistachio oyster shell scale, Lepidosaphes pistaciae under laboratory conditions (temperature: 25 ± 2 °c relative humidity: 65 ± 5% and photoperiod: 16:8 L: D/h). Life cycle of C. f. minor was completed at six stages including egg, three larval instars, pupa and adult. Duration of the development for one generation (not considering preoviposition period) was 43-46 days for males and 38- 42 days for females. The developmental time length for the egg, larval instars1-3, pupa, male and female adults longevity, preoviposition and postoviposition periods was 8.8 ± 0.1, 5.2 ± 0.1, 34 ± 0.1, 6.8 ± 0.1, 17.3 ± 0.3, 59.2 ± 2.2, 65.8 ± 3.1, 6.8 ± 1.6 and 3.5 ± 0.5, respectively. Average fecundidity (number of eggs laid by a female per her life time) was 64.7 ± 6.2. Sex ratio in the laboratory and in the field was 1:1. Daily feeding rate for the female and male adults, larval instars feeding on adult female scale was 7.1 ± 3.5, 6.9 ± 2.2, 1.8 ± 0.2, 3.7 ± 0.2 and 5.9 ± 0.3, respectively. These parameters were also determined when those stages were fed on the eggs and second nymphal stages of pistachio oyster shell scale. Adult beetles over 60 days exhibited the highest feeding on this scale.

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Some strawberriy cultivars (Fragaria x ananassa Dutch. cv. Aliso, Selva, Gaviota and Camarosa) were grown hydroponically with five NH₄:NO₃ mM concentration ratios (0/6 (S1), 0.25/6 (S2), 0.5/6 (S3), 1/6 (S4), 2/6 (S5) and constant nitrate concentration in three replicates for two seasons: Summer and Winter, in greenhouses of Agriculture Faculty of Tehran University. The results are reported as Follows: In summer shoot dry weight and shoot/ root ratio were highest in 0.25 and 0.5 mM NH₄-N and were constant in remaining solutions with higher ammonium concentration. Increasing ammonium concentration resulted in decreasing the root dry weight. Aliso and Selva had the highest shoot and root dry matter respectively. Gaviota had the highest runner. In winter, shoot dry matter was highest in plants grown in S5 solution. Increasing ammonium from 0 to 0.5 mM decreased fruit yield but more ammonium in S4 and S5 solution increased yield. Root and fruit dry matter were highest in Selva. Yield and Fruit fresh weight were highest in Gaviota. Camarosa had the highest shoot dry weight. In summer shoot dry weight was significantly higher than in winter. Due to the high yeild, commercial use of the S5 solution and the cv. Gaviota is recommended.

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In order to determine the most important quantitative and qualitative characteristics of pomegranate fruit and its components for categorizing the genotypes, a study was carried out using 24 genotypes. In this study 28 quantitative and qualitative characteristics of pomegranate fruit and seed were evaluated. Analysis of variance showed that all of the characteristics in examined genotypes were significant, showing high variability in characteristics. Results of simple correlation analysis showed the existence of significant, positive and negative correlations among some important characteristics. Also, factor analysis showed that most of fruit juice, aril and seed characteristics constituted the main factors. Effective characteristics categorized in seven factors accounted for 89% of total variance. For each factor, eigen value more than 0.7 was considered significant. Cluster analysis was performed using these seven factors and genotypes, in the distance of 9, were divided into 5 main clusters. These groups were mainly distinct in fruit flavor and soft seededness. Furthermore, by using three main factors, genotypes positions determined in 3-plot analysis, which distinguished sweeter genotypes from sweet-sour and sour genotypes.

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Canola (Brassica napus) is one of the important oil seed crops cultivated in many parts of Iran. One of the main problems of seed production of canola is pollination and fertilization of flowers. Insects are the major pollinators. In order to study the fauna of insect pollinators of 3 cultivars of canola including Talaye, Okapi and S.L.M. and the difference between the attractiveness of these cultivars to insects during the flowering period, insects were collected by sweeping net and identified. Their abundance was determined at different periods of time during a day. Results showed that insect pollinators belonged to five orders and 18 families. The most abundant pollinators were Hymenopterous insects specialy honey bees (Apis mellifera) which were about 50%. Irrespective of Apis mellifera, the most abundant insects captured belonged to Diptera. Three Dipterous insects, Bibio hortulanus, Metasyrphus corollae and Platypalpus sp. were collected and identified. During the flowering period (March to mid April) in Isfahan, honey bees were more abundant in the warmer hours of the day, mostly noon and afternoon, but were less active in the early hours of the day, morning, because of cold weather and low nectar production. Honey bees were more active than other pollinators on Talaye at 9 a.m. and on Okapi at mid-day, noon, and during afternoon. Results also showed that insect pollinators could increase seed yield by 53%.

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In order to assess and determine amino acids profile and their availability in different sorghum grain (SG) varieties, three SG varieties including low tannin (0.09% , LTS), medium tannin (0.19%, MTS) and high tannin (0.37%, HTS) were grown at the same location. The grains were analysed for their proximate analyses, tannin and amino acids. True amino acid availability (TAAA) was obtained by Sibbald’s method using ceacectomized single comb leghorn cockerels. The results showed that methionine and cystine were the first and the second limiting amino acids, respectively in LTS and MTS. But in HTS, lysine (0.166%) was the first and methionine (0.176%) was the second limiting amino acid. Methionine content was 0.114% , 0.182% and 0.176% for LTS, MTS and HTS, respectively. Although, crude protein was lower in HTS (10%) than the other SG, but histidine, methionine and isoleucine were higher for HTS in comparison to LTS and MTS. TAAA decreased when tannin content increased and all amino acids had a lower availability in HTS than LTS and MTS (P<0.05). Methionine in HTS and LTS and glutamic acid in MTS had the highest availability. The availability of proline was most affected by tannin, and its availability was 91.55% for LTS, 84.82% for MTS and 22.82% for HTS (P<0.05).

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Pollination and fertilization of canola flowers are the main factors of canola seed production. In order to study the effects of insect pollinators on seed quantity and quality of three chosen cultivars of canola, namly, S.L.M., Okapi and Talaye, a split plot experiment in a complete randomized block design with four replications was carried out in Isfahan region. Main plots consisted of canola cultivars, and subplots consisted of open pollination and non-pollination by insects. Results indicated that the time to seed ripening in pollinated plots was 10.5 days less than those of non-pollinated plots. Pollination by insects increased the number of pods per plant, number of seeds per pod and weight of 1000 seeds, by 14.3%, 23.5% and 10%, respectively. Grain yield also increased by 53% in pollinated plots. Pollination decreased seed moisture percentage by 3.15%, but its effect on seed oil percentage and germination percentage were not significant. Time to seed germination of plants of pollinated plots decreased three hours. Cultivars were significantly different in seed oil percentage and time to seed germination. Talaye cultivar produced the highest amount of oil (45.5%), while Okapi produced the lowest (40.8%). There were significant interactions between cultivars and pollination in terms of seed ripening, oil percentage and moisture of seeds, and the effects of pollination was different in different cultivars.

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This research was conducted in order to select male genotypes of pistachio with good performance. The study was performed on 10 genotypes in regard to their flowering time, pollen quantity and quality. The results indicated that flowering times of P1, P2 genotypes were simultaneous with Kallehghochi P3, P4, P5 genotypes with Ahmad Aghaii P6 and P7 genotypes with Ohadi and P8, P9, P10 genotypes with Akbari. Inflorescence weight showed big differences between them, ranging from 4.5gr for P6 to 1.66gr for P8. The amount of pollen per inflorescence also showed big difference, ranging from 71mg for P2 and 267mg for P5. In order to determine the percentage of pollen germination, a medium consisting of sucrose, agar and boric acid was used. The percentage of pollen germination also showed big difference, ranging from 30%for P3 and P4 and 85% for P10. Stored pollen at 4°C temperature showed 30% germination after one month and 0% germination after three months. The results also indicated that the percentage of pollen germination in culture medium without boric acid was lower, compared with other treatments. The viability of pollens collected from cutting inflorescences kept in water bottle was higher than that obtained from dried inflorescences maintained in room condition.

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  In order to evaluate insecticidal potential of some botanical extracts, a factorial experiment of complete randomized design with three replications on Callosobruchus maculatus was adopted for a pilot experiment in the laboratory. Plant extracts were prepared from 22 plants with three solvents (Methanol, Acetone and N-Hexane) with 30% concentration. Experiments were carried out at 25˚C and 70 ± 5% RH under 16: 8 (D: L) conditions. Each unit of experiment was a petri dish covered with a filter paper and 1.5 ml of each treatment solution was poured in it and 25 insects were released. Mortality was recorded after 36 hours. In this experiment, each plant extract with more than 50% mortality on C. maculaus was selected for further laboratory screening. In this stage of experiment methanolic leaf extract of Teucrium polium (with 55.04 percent mortality), hexane extract of Sonchus oleraceus (with 54.64 percent mortality), acetonic leaf extract of Calotropis procera (with 53.6 percent mortality), methanolic extract of Fumaria parviflora (with 52.7 percent mortality), methanolic extract of Capsicum annuum (with 50.04 percent mortality), and acetonic extract of Thymus vulgaris (with 50 percent mortality) were selected. After carring out the pilot experiment, the effective extracts with five concentrations of 15, 22.4, 33.5, 50.2 and 75% and one control were evaluated on the C. maculaus. This experiment also was designed in the laboratory as a factorial experiment of complete randomized design with three replications and mortality was recorded after 36 hours. In the highest concentration (75%), extract of Fumaria parviflora and extract of Thymus vulgaris (with 88.3% mortality) and extract of Sonchus oleraceus (with 78.3%) had higher and lower percentage of mortality resectively. The LC₅₀ values of effective extracts were calculated for C. maculaus after 36 hours of treatment with plant extracts. The results showed that C. maculatus with LC₅₀ = 126.27 µl/ml has highest sensitivity against extract of Fumaria parviflora and has lower sensitivity against extract of Sonchus oleraceus with LC₅₀ = 370.09 µl/ml in comparison to other extracts. Amongst the tested concentrations of plant extracts, 5 plant extracts with the concentrations that had the higher mortality on C. maculaus, were selected for experiment on Laphigma exigua in greenhouse. This experiment was carried out with complete randomized design with four replications. The acetonic leaf extract of Calotropis procera (with 57.5 %) caused the highest mortality and acetonic extract of Thymus vulgaris (with 27.5 %) caused the lowest mortality on L. exigua in comparison to other extracts.

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In this study diflubenzuron as a chitin synthesis inhibitor with a dosage of 25 mg A.I/L, and Pyriproxyfen as a juvenile hormone analogue with a dosage of 0.4 mgA.I/L were incorporated in the wax diets of young and last instar larvae of greater wax moth and reared at different temperatures (25, 30, 35°C). Results showed that these compounds in comparison with control increased larval mortality. Diflubenzuron and pyriproxyfen caused 33.9% and 24.1% mortality respectively. The young larvae showed higher mortality with the mean of 57.8% in diflubenzuron and 31.5% in pyriproxyfen. In evaluation of pupation and emergence of adults, no significant differences were observed between diflubenzuron and control. Pyriproxyfen induced reduction in pupation about 48.4% and adult emergence about 44.8% and caused some abnormalities of pupae. Last larval instar was more sensitive to JHA in this respect. Maximum pupation disruption occurred at 25ºC and 30ºC in comparison with 35ºC which reduced abnormal pupae up to 19.7%. IGRs were effective in last larval instar at 35 ºC and increased abnormality of adult up to 49.4%. Reproductive potential (egg viability, hatchability) of adults reduced in F1 generation and was 70-90 percent. IGRs have unfavorable effects on biological aspects of larvae therefore, it is possible to use IGRs alone or in conjunction with other pesticides (Fumigants) in integrated control of these pests.

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Due to injuries of pesticides to natural enemies of pests and pollinator insects, especially honeybees, during the flowering periods, it is essential to protect them. Application of chemical compounds along with the pesticides on the plants could repel the non-target insects from the sprayed areas for sometime and lessen the hazards of pesticides to them. In this study, ten repellent chemicals whose repellency effect was proven in the laboratory in previous studies were screened in the field. Among tested repellents including, Acetophenon, Methyl ethyl ketone, Methyl isobutyl ketone, Cyclohexanone, Acetyl acetone, Methylsalicylate, Propionic anhydride, Maleic anhydrate, 2- Ethylhexylamine, and Dibutylamine, it was revealed that amino group compounds including 2- Ethylhexylamine and Dibutylamine and esteric compound, Methylsalicilate had the highest repellency effect on the honeybees under the field conditions. Repellency effect of these compounds was greater at 15 pm than other sampling times. Repellency effects of different concentrations of these three compounds, when mixed with 0.5% concentration of fixative compounds, showed that the mixture of 2- Ethylhexylamine with Benzylbenzoate, Dibutylphthalate and Benzylalcohole with concentration of 0.17, 0.4 and 0.03 % respectively, the mixture of Dibutylamine at the concentration of 1% with Benzylbenzoate and Dibutylphthalate and at the concentration of 0.08% and higher with Benzylalcohole, and also mixture of Methylsalicilate at the concentration of 1.8 % and higher with Benzylalcohole, all have repellency effect of more than 70% under the field conditions.

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Seedlessness is the most important characteristic of fruit quality for raisin and table grapes. Grape breeding at University of Tehran, Karaj branch, Iran started in 1999 with crossing some selected seedless and seeded cultivars at the end of evaluation of 90 cultivars in grapevine collection of College of Agriculture in Karaj. Out of 1400 progeny obtained from 26 different crosses, 381 of them which produced fruits were evaluated during growing seasons of 2006 & 2007. Progenies were divided into four groups of completely seedless, semi-seedless, semi-seeded and completely seeded, according to seed trace or seed weight. Results classified progeny to 11% completely seedless, 13.6% semi-seedless, 24% semi seeded and 51.2% completely seeded. Percentages of seedless progeny for four male parents of Askary, Yaghooti, Bidane Sefid and Bidane Ghermez were 15.4%, 10.8%, 9.3% and 10.6%, respectively. Meanwhile, percentages of seedless progeny for female parents of Muscut of Hamburg, Ghezel Uzum, Dizmary, Rajabi Sefied, Ali Baba, Alhaghi Ghermez and Tabariz were 5.4%, 5%, 17.5%, 13.2 %, 1.4%, zero and 36%, respectively. Results also showed that among male parents, Yaghooti and Bidane Ghermez cultivars and among female parents, Tabarze cultivar had better backgrounds to transmit stenospermocarpic seedlessness characteristics.

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Because of many small florets and protandry, cross pollination in onion which is a biennial plant, by using polycross method for breeding is suitable and easy. To produce polycross seed, bulbs of 9 self onion genotypes were planted in the shape of equilibrium lattice design for 9 treatments with 10 replications on May 2002. To study some agronomical characteristicss, the polycross seeds produced from free pollination and original self-fed seeds (totally 18 genotypes) were planted in plots as a randomized block design with four replications. Samples were taken from each plot and different characteristics were measured. Results showed that polycross generally increased plant fresh and dry weight, plant height, percentage of off type bulbs and yield, with no effect on bulbing ratio and time to ripening. Although polycross increased most agronomical characteristics and yield in Kashan, Azarshahr and Kazeroon genotypes, in some genotypes little increase or even negative effects resulted due to interaction between genotype and polycross. With more assessment of polycross genotypes, good characteristics will be fixed and seeds with higher qualities will be produced.

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Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci Lind.) is one of the important factors which indirectly restrict the proper yield of onion (Allium cepa L.). Therefore, finding tolerant cultivars to onion thrips is important. Because of many small florets, cross pollination in onion which is a biennial plant by using polycross method for breeding is suitable and easy. To produce polycross seed, bulbs of 9 self pollinated onion genotypes were planted in the shape of equilibrium lattice design for 9 treatments in May 2002. To study tolerance to onion thrips and assess other agronomical characteristics, the polycross seeds produced from free pollination and self pollinated plant seeds (totally 18 genotypes) were planted in a randomized block design with four replications. The main plots were sprayed and not sprayed, and sub-plots were onion genotypes. From August to October 2003, samples were taken from each plot bi-weekly, and number of thrips, and percentage of injury on plants were recorded. As a result of this study, Azarshahr self pollinated genotype showed maximum population density of thrips (22.24) and injury, but Ghom and Abarkooh genotypes showed the lowest amount (2.65 and 5.68 respectively) among all genotypes. Among pollycross genotypes, Ghom and Kashan genotypes showed low population densities (4.3 and 4.24 respectively) and injury, but Azarshahr and Tarom showed high population densities (20.66 and 19.84 respectively) and percentage of injury. Generally, polycross reduced population density of thrips and percentage of injury.

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This study was set up in the research station of Rice Research Institute of Iran (RRII) to determine the response of three hetrotic Indica × Indica rice hybrids (Bahar1, IR75221H and IR69688H) to anther culture on four induction media (N6, modified N6, chu and modified chu). To evaluate hybrids, the percentage of calluses which had been made from anthers in early uni- to mid- uninucleate stage and the number of regenerated plantlets of calluses in those media were determined. The results indicated that genotype, composition of callus induction medium and their interactions significantly affected callus percentage, total plant regeneration and production of green and albino plants. IR75221H hybrid was considerably superior for callus induction (1/64%) and Bahar1 hybrid was the most desirable for producing of green plants (3/43%) and total regeneration (12/24%). IR75221H hybrid produced higher albino plant (10/66%) and IR69688H hybrid produced lower albino plant (6/45%). The best medium culture in the case of callus induction was modified N6 (2%) and total regeneration (21/82%) produced green plant (5/6%), and albino plant (16/22%) was modified Chu among all media culture. However, genotypes showed different results in each media culture, and responses to hybrid of anther culture was low, but by changing the media culture we increased the response of culture.

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The effect of mulberry leaves enrichment with riboflavin in 7, 37, 77 and 127ppm concentrations on larval growth and cocoon characteristics of Bombyx mori L., hybrid 103×104 was studied. Silkworm larvae were fed on fresh mulberry leaves of shin inche nevise enriched with riboflavin once a day. All biological and economical parameters were determined by using standard techniques in sericulture. The results showed that larval weight was greater in 77ppm among treatments on the 7th day of the fifth instar which had 47% increase compared to control. Maximum amount of female cocoon weight and female pupal weight were recorded 1.622g and 1.169g, respectively, in 127ppm while male cocoon weight and pupal weight were greater in 37ppm and recorded to be 1.169g and 0.895g, respectively. Maximum amount of cocoon shell weight and cocoon shell ratio were recorded in 77ppm for male (0.311g and 26.06%) and female (0.318g and 21.46%). Maximum weight of 50 eggs (0.027g) was recorded in 127ppm while high fertility and hatchability was recorded in 77ppm concentration. Effective rate of rearing was maximum in control treatment (72%) with no significant difference compared with other treatments. The overall results showed that riboflavin can be used at 77ppm concentration for the significant increase of cocoon weight, cocoon shell ratio and egg production of silkworm, Bombyx mori L.

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Some recent research has indicated that certain alkaline contaminations may adversely affect mechanical properties of clayey soils. To examine the potential impact of alkaline divalent barium on the swelling characteristics of KAHRIZAK clay, the major solid-waste landfill at south of Tehran, a systematic set of experiments was conducted. Observations indicated that the swelling in the studied soil that belonged to the CH-MH group with a PI of 28.44, was reduced by about 17, 37, 48 and 54 percent, and swelling pressure by about 41, 55, 65 and 67 percent, respectively, after addition of barium chloride solutions to concentrations of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75 and 1.25 molal. It was also found that addition of barium chloride solutions to concentrations of higher than 1 molal had a little effect on reduction of swelling and swelling pressure.

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