JWSS - Journal of Water and Soil Science

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In 1996 and 1997 pistachio orchards in Isfahan Province were surveyed to determine the presence and damage levels by Eurytoma plotnikovi Nikolskaya and Megastigmus pistacia Walker. In order to investigate seasonal population fluctuation of E. plotnikovi, larval, pupal and adult stages were monitored in three orchards. In each orchard, 200 nuts with more than 50% infestation to overwintering larvae were dissected and examined twice weekly. In 1997 in one orchard, at intervals of one week, 100 randomly selected fresh nuts were examined to determine oviposition trend and damage development. In this field, the biology of the pest was also compared to developmental stages of pistachio trees. In most orchards visited, E. plonikovi was present and was the dominant species in relation to M. pistacia and its damage varied between 0.8-75%. In 1997, start, peak, and end of pupal stage were observed on April 4th, May 7th and May 21st. Start, peak and end of adult emergence occurred on May 4th, May 18th and June 4th. In two other orchards, almost a similar trend was observed. Start, peak and end of oviposition were also observed on May 18th, May 28th and July 2nd. Development of pistachio tree was divided into nine stages and the above mentioned dates were compared to that.

E. plotnikovi had one generation every one or two years. Only one egg was found in each infested fruit and first stage larvae had a long prefeeding period. The use of the information obtained from this study in the management of these pests is discussed.

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The effect of soil salinity on plant growth is due to two factors, namely, increase in osmotic pressure of soil solution and the ionic composition of salt. The present experiment was conducted to obtain information about the response of pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) to salinity and ionic composition of the salt. Salinity with different relative composition of sodium chloride and sodium sulfate were applied to two pistachio cultivars, Fandoghi and Badami. Yield (dry matter of leaf and shoots produced in each pot) of plants were compared by the analysis of variances method of F and Duncan tests.

The yields of the cultivars were significantly different (P≤0.01) with Fandoghi cultivar producing less shoots and leaf and, consequently, lower total dry matter. Increasing the salinity level decreased the plant growth. Leaves were more sensitive to salinity. Increasing the ratio of sulfate salt alleviated the depressive effect of salinity such that when salinity was 100% sodium sulfate, the dry matter yield of shoots was 1.5 times and that of leaf was 1.7 times higher compared to the treatment where salinity was 100% sodium chloride. Leaf was more sensitive than shoots and, therefore, it showed a more positive response to chloride decreasing.

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Pistachio oyster shell scale is one of the important pests of pistachio in Iran whose females are reported to exist in two or three forms, each form developing on a specific part of the pistachio tree. In this study, abundance of the pest is investigated on leaves and branches for different ages, two heights and four cardinal directions of tree crown. Paralelly seasonal population fluctuations of three forms were studied on leaves, and one-and two-year-old branches separately. This insect overwintered as female mostly on one and two-year-old branches. It had two separable periods of activity, through the season. In the first period, eggs mostly hatched in April and crawlers mostly settled on leaves, fruits and newly grown twigs but rarely on older branches.These populations are male and female. In the second period, eggs mostly hatched in June, and crawlers settled mostly on leaves and one and two-year-old branches, but all individuals settled on leaves are males and those on branches are females. Population density is significantly higher on upper surface of leaves than on the lower surface. Analysis of variance showed that only significant differences existed in densities observed between trees in both generations, and also between two heights of tree crown for populations settled on wood. Two predatory species from Cybocephalidae and Coccinellidae, one ectoparasitoid from Aphelinidae and two endoparasitoids from Encyrtidae were collected as natural enemies of this pest in Isfahan.

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Thirty genotypes of pistachio cultivars and related species were evaluated for genetic diversity using three polymorphic isozymes, i.e. Esterase, Peroxidase and Malate dehydrogenase. Young leaves of pistachio were crushed with extraction buffer containing: 20% sucrose, 0.01 M dithiothretiol, 2% polyethylene glycol, and 8% polyvenyl polypyrollidone. Samples were analyzed using isoelectric focussing on polyacrylamide gels containing 2% (W/V) ampholyte. All the three isozymes revealed high degrees of polymorphism in pistachio cultivars and related species. Maximum polymorphism was observed for Est. enzyme. A total of 19 bands in Est. and 28 bands in MDH were observed in a wide range of pH gradient however, in Per. there were 11 bands all of which located in a narrow range of pH gradient. Cluster analysis based on the three system enzymes revealed that all the 30 pistachio genotypes were in 8 main classes and 20 subclasses and the extent of genetic similarity reduced from cultivated varieties to species, which were finally classified in 3 groups. Sarakhs variety, a wild type of P. vera, was classified in a group between cultivated varieties and species.

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High attraction is reported for yellow sticky traps to capture pistachio psylla. In pest management, it is important to forecast from the adult population density the density of other developmental stages in order to gain an estimate of the density in damaging stages. In 1998 and 1999, yellow sticky boards with 10150.15 cm were installed in two pistachio orchards in Borkhar district of Isfahan and egg and nymphal densities were simultaneously counted on leaves. Collected data were used to determine regression relationships between two weeks’ average egg density, first and second nymphal instar densities and the sum of egg and first and second instar nymphal densities, one week after the average adult capture in two previous weeks. A low correlation was found between egg count and adult capture, but higher coefficients were obtained between other stages. It was possible to estimate first and second instar nymphal populations from the following equations:

 For high adult densities (X):

Y= 58.6+0.4762X-(7*10^-5)X²                                    R²=0.82                             commercial orchard

 Y= 27.68+0.5092X-(5*10^-5)X²                       R²=0.86                              abandoned orchard

and for low adult densities (X)

Y= 1.7162X-17.454                                     R²=0.97                              commercial orchard

 Y= 1.1117X-4.9841                                    R2=0.90                              abandoned orchard

The application of this method is recommended for the management of pistachio psylla.

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In order to increase the role of machine vision in agricultural research in Iran, especially for measuring physical attributes of seeds, a machine vision system was developed using a computer, a capture card, a video camera and a light box. All equipment was purchased from domestic markets. Computer programs were developed for hardware setup and for image processing applications. The programs perfomed tasks such as image acquisition and display, color conversion, image segmentation, object counting, and measurement of some physical attributes of the objects by analysing their images. The system was used to measure some physical attributes of pistachio nuts. The machine vision measurements were statistically compared with the measurements obtained by the conventional manual methods. The results indicated that there was generally no significant difference between the two methods. However, the time consumed by the machine vision method was far less than the time taken by manual methods. The experimental results also showed that there were many sources of error and limiting factors in using machine vision for measuring physical attributes of seeds.

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To determine the effects of salinity and boron excess in irrigation water on relative growth rate (RGR), net assimilation rate on a leaf weight basis (NAR), and leaf weight ratio (LWR) of pistachio, three pistachio rootstocks (Badami -Zarand, Sarakhs and Ghazvini) were used. Rootstocks were grown in soil in eight-liter polyethylene pots. Sodium chloride treatments were 0, 75,150 and 225 mM NaCl and boron treatments were 0, 20 and 40mg liter^-1. Treatments were applied to the one-year old pistachio rootstock seedlings in three-day intervals with irrigation water. Some plants were randomly selected and destructively harvested before (day 0) and after applying treatments (30 and 60 days after treatments started). Growth and physiological characters were then measured as follows: number of leaves, leaf area, plant height and root length, fresh and dry weights of stem, root and leaf, proline accumulation in the leaf, total chlorophyll, and leaf relative water content (RWC). Results indicated that relative growth rate decreased with time for all treatments and in all rootstocks. Salt treatment significantly reduced both RGR and NAR, whereas LWR showed no significant differences. In all rootstocks, NAR, but not LWR, was significantly correlated with RGR, indicating that NAR was an important factor underlying the salinity-induced differences in RGR among the pistachio rootstocks. Salinity did not affect leaf water potential (ψ), chlorophyll content, and Fv:Fm ratio but increased NaCl concentration and time correspondingly increased proline accumulation in leaves. In addition, Ghazvini rootstock accumulated more proline compared to other rootstocks and was more resistant to salinity treatments. Different boron treatments did not show any significant effect on growth rate nor on measured parameters after two months of exposure to treatments.

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In order to investigate variations of spore population, root colonization and also to determine mycorrhizal symbiosis in the root and rhizosphere of Pistachio trees (Pistacia vera) in natural forests, two study stations in Kalat (Chachaeh) and Sarakhs (Shorlogh) regions were selected. Sampling from soil and root of the trees were taken from under the canopy and from a depth of 30 cm. On a monthly basis. The roots were stained and the colonization rate and the variations of spore population were measured. Some soil characteristics including pH, moisture, organic material percentage and available phosphorus were determined, The correlation coefficients between the measured factors were calculated. The results indicated that vesicular – arbuscular mycorrhiza (VAM) was the only symbiotic mycorriza of pistachio trees. Average amounts of root colonization were 13% and 11% in Chahchaheh and Shorlogh stations, respectively. Also, average numbers of spores per 1 gram of dry soil in the above stations were 12 and 10, respectively. The correlation between the variation of spore population and colonization levels was positive but the correlation between spore population and soil moisture, organic material, available phosphorus and pH was negative.

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This study shows how multiobjective programming, compromise programming and filtering techniques could be used to manage scarce resources. Data were collected from a sample of 109 Rafsanjan pistachio producers. The aim of the program was to make a compromise between the objectives of profit maximization, the maximization of the area under pistachio gardens and also maximization of the groundwater use. The multiobjective programming approach and filtering techniques were used to find the efficient set among these objectives. A compromise between the objectives was established by the compromise programming method. Although none of the above three objectives achieved completely in the compromise solution, it became nearer to the ideal point on the assumption that the importance of three objectives was the same. By omitting this assumption and considering the objective weights based on decision maker preferences, the compromise solution might become nearer to the ideal point.

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Green skin (hull) of pistachio fruits is a barrier against the penetration of fungi and insects into the kernel of pistachio. Splitting of husk facilitates the entry of fungi and infection of pistachio kernels during the harvest. So far no effective way has been reported for controlling this problem. To evaluate the effects of gibberellic acid on hull spliting the present research was conducted in a commercial orchard of pistachio during 2001-2002 in Rafsanjan, Iran. Gibberellic acid (GA₃) at 0,25,50 and 100 mg ^–1 was applied on 25-year-old of “Owhadi” pistachio cultivar. Two branches of each tree was sprayed during two years of study. GA₃ at 25,50 and 100 mg ^–1 significantly reduced hull splitting and penetration by Aspergillus spp. into pistachio fruits. There was a positive correlation between the hull splitting and fungi penetration (r=0.92^*). The exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp of pistachio fruits cultured on selective medium of Aspergillus spp. showed no infection of pistachio kernel by Aspergillus spp. The highest concentration of aflatoxin was detected in the kernel of non-treated fruits (6.25 ppb) and the lowest (0.5 ppb) fruits treated by GA₃ . GA₃ reduced husk slippery of pistachio fruits at harvest. The rate of husk slippery was reduced by increasing the concentration of GA₃. Gibberellic acid treatments had no significant effect on dehiscence, weight of 100 fruits, total soluble solids, but significantly increased fat and chlrophyll content of kernel of pistachio fruits. The results of the study is recommended for commerical pistachio production in Iran.

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In this study, at first, different models for measuring hedge ratios in futures and options markets were introduced. Then, the models were applied to a sample of 300 Iranian pistachio producers. The results showed that hedge ratios in pistachio futures and options markets, on average, were in a range of 0.22 to 0.99. When pistachio yield is unpredictable, options market is preferred to futures market. But in certain conditions, futures market is preferable. The results also showed that debt to asset ratio had a positive effect on hedge ratio, but bank loan effect was negative.

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The predatory beetle Cybocephalus fodori minor has recently been reported in Iran. Also few studies have been reported on life cycle of Cybocephalus beetles, especially on that of C. f. minor. Thus, the life cycle and feeding rate of this predatory beetle was studied on pistachio oyster shell scale, Lepidosaphes pistaciae under laboratory conditions (temperature: 25 ± 2 °c relative humidity: 65 ± 5% and photoperiod: 16:8 L: D/h). Life cycle of C. f. minor was completed at six stages including egg, three larval instars, pupa and adult. Duration of the development for one generation (not considering preoviposition period) was 43-46 days for males and 38- 42 days for females. The developmental time length for the egg, larval instars1-3, pupa, male and female adults longevity, preoviposition and postoviposition periods was 8.8 ± 0.1, 5.2 ± 0.1, 34 ± 0.1, 6.8 ± 0.1, 17.3 ± 0.3, 59.2 ± 2.2, 65.8 ± 3.1, 6.8 ± 1.6 and 3.5 ± 0.5, respectively. Average fecundidity (number of eggs laid by a female per her life time) was 64.7 ± 6.2. Sex ratio in the laboratory and in the field was 1:1. Daily feeding rate for the female and male adults, larval instars feeding on adult female scale was 7.1 ± 3.5, 6.9 ± 2.2, 1.8 ± 0.2, 3.7 ± 0.2 and 5.9 ± 0.3, respectively. These parameters were also determined when those stages were fed on the eggs and second nymphal stages of pistachio oyster shell scale. Adult beetles over 60 days exhibited the highest feeding on this scale.

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To evaluate the effects of chemical and hand fruit thinning on pistachio flower bud retention, experiments were conducted during 1382 and 1383. In the first year, ethephon treatments at the concentrations of 100 and 200 mg L^-1, urea at 2.5% and 5%, naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) 125 and 250 mg L^-1 and naphthaleneacetamide (NAD) 250 and 500 mg L^-1 were sprayed on two branches of nine uniform trees with four replications. During the second year, hand fruit thinning treatments were used in addition to the previous treatments. Chemical treatments reduced flower bud abscission among them ethephon treatments were the most effective on flower bud retention. As compared with other treatments, hand thinning treatments had also positive effect on flower bud retention. Fruit thinning also increased kernel weight, reduced the number of nuts per ounce and decreased blank fruits. Fruit thinning had no significant effect on the yield of branches during ‘on’ year.

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A 4x4 factorial experiment with a completely randomized design with three replications was conducted separately on two major pistachio varieties, Ohady and Kaleghoochy, to investigate the effects of shaking amplitude and frequency on pistachio nut and cluster detachment. Four levels of shaking frequencies used for Ohady were 5, 7.5, 10 and 12.5 Hz, while those of Kaleghoochy were 7.5, 10, 12.5 and 15 Hz. Four levels of shaking amplitude for Ohady were 20, 40, 60 and 80 mm, while those of the Kaleghoochy were 40, 60, 80 and 100 mm. Analysis of variance and mean comparison showed that the effects of shaking amplitude and frequency on pistachio nut and cluster detachment were significant on both varieties. It was found that in Ohady, at frequency of 12.5 Hz and amplitude of 80 mm, the maximum effective nut detachment occurred. But considering the need to limit both yield loss and limb damage to 5% and minimizing the power requirement of the limb shaker, applying shaking amplitude of 60 mm and frequency of 10 Hz, which detaches 95% of the nuts, is considered as the most suitable combination of shaking amplitude and frequency. Also, at amplitude of 80 mm and frequency of 12.5 Hz, the highest percentage of cluster detachment occurred. Here again, by considering limb damage and power requirement, applying shaking frequency of 12.5 Hz at 60 mm amplitude with 69% cluster detachment was selected as the most suitable combination. In Kaleghoochi, at amplitude of 100 mm and frequency of 15 Hz, nut detachment was 100%, while the need to limit limb damage and power consumption, the combination of 60 mm amplitude and 15 Hz frequency with 97.2% nut detachment was selected as the most suitable one. For cluster harvesting of Kaleghoochy, shaking amplitudes of 60 and 40 mm and frequency of 12.5 Hz with cluster detachment of 75 and 69 percent, respectively were selected as the most suitable ones. The average ratio of tensile force required for removing pistachio nut to its weight (F/W), and the ratio of tensile force required for removing pistachio cluster to its weight (V/W), which could be considered as an index of ease of detachment, were measured 6.2 and 37 for Ohady and 9 and 37.8 for Kaleghoochy, respectively. Finally, we may conclude that by applying the suitable combination of shaking amplitude and frequency, shake harvesting of pistachio could be practiced successfully.

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  Effect of change from the conventional (flooding) to subsurface irrigation system was studied on mature pistachio trees (Cultivar Ohadi) in Kerman pistachio research station for four years. This experiment was carried out in a randomized complete block design including 7 treatments and 3 replications. The experiment also used two irrigation intervals (7&14 days) and three water rates according to pan coefficient (20%, 40%& 60% evaporation from surface of class A pan) for subsurface irrigation system with 6 treatments the conventional (flooding) irrigation system was tested as control. The pipes of subsurface irrigation system were installed at 90cm distance from trees trunk at each side of trees, and 50cm from soil surface. Mean of pressure and discharge in the pipes was 0.8 to 1 atmosphere and 5.4 Lh^-1m^-1, respectively. Different factors of quantity and quality pistachio yield, current vegetative growth, water use efficiency and soil electrical conductivity were measured. The results showed that change of conventional (flooding) to subsurface irrigation system is possible and the best treatment can have water rate of 7174 m³ha^-1y^-1 with 14 days irrigation interval. In comparison with other treatments, this treatment has better quantity and quality pistachio yield. Water use efficiency (WUE) of this treatment was 164g dry yield per cubic meter. Nevertheless, application of water rate of 4783 m³ha^-1y^-1 can result in the deficiency of irrigation water. At this water rate, WUE was 177g dry yield per cubic meter. However, it was found that the application of lower water rate (<4783 m³ha^-1y^-1) produced severe effects on the treated pistachio trees, e.g. decreasing the growth rate, yield and increasing the early splitting in pistachio fruits. Finally, it is concluded that 14-day interval irrigation is the preferred treatment for pistachio trees. Also, soil salinity showed considerable change in subsurface irrigation treatments after irrigation system was changed, especially in the first year.

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Microsatellite DNA markers isolated from wild species khinjuk (Pistacia khinjuk Stocks.) were used to evaluate the genetic diversity available in Iranian pistachio cultivars. Out of the 27 SSR primers tested initially, 25 could amplify the DNA in different pistachio cultivars, of which 19 primer pairs produced clear bands. Based on the amplification profiles of the genotypes by the remaining primer pairs, eight primers produced a monomorphic product and other 11 microsatellites markers were found polymorphic among the genotypes. The number of putative alleles amplified by each polymorphic SSR locus ranged from two to eleven alleles with a total of 48 alleles. An average of alleles and observed heterozygosity per locus was 3.69 and 0.69 respectively, showing that these microsatellites are highly informative for pistachio fingerprinting. The UPGMA cluster plots based on nei index placed the 20 commercial pistachio cultivars into a major group containing three distinguished subgroups however, genotypes, namely, Ghazvini zudras and Sarakhs (wild P. vera), were clearly situated into two distinct clusters, distant from the domesticated genotypes studied here. Both Ghazvini zudras and Sarakhs are known as small-fruited genotypes which are grown in restricted regions. Therefore, the distinctness of these genotypes can be attributed to their geographical isolation and morphological characteristics. It seems that Ghazvini zudras probably originated from Sarakhs variety which posses an important role in development of pistachio cultivars. The present study revealed that the khinjuk pistachio microsatellites are well distributed in the genome of P.vera , and are informative for estimating the extent of genetic diversity and characterization of pistachio cultivars.

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Pistachio (Pistacia vera L.) is an important economic crop, which is mostly planted in saline conditions in Iran. Verticillium wilt disease of pistachio caused by Verticillium dahliae is known as a serious disease for pistachio trees. The causal agent was recovered from shoot and soil samples collected from main pistachio growing areas in Kerman province. The present experiment was carried out to study the effect of salinity on disease using three common P. vera rootstocks including Sarakhs, Badami-e-Zarand and Qazvini and four levels of salinity (0, 1400, 2800 and 4200 mg NaCl per kg soil) in hydroponic culture (1/2 strength Hoagland,s solution). Salt stress was applied before inoculation on ten week old seedlings. The experiment was carried out as factorial in RCD with four replications. Two weeks after salt stress induction, four seedlings were transplanted into pots containing 5 kg sandy-clay virgin soil artificially infested with 40 microsclerotia per gram of soil with equal salinity. In NaCl treatments, Sarakhs showed lower shoot and root dry weight and higher concentration of Na, K and Cl than the other rootstocks. Based on the results, Sarakhs, Qazvini and Badami were found to be susceptible, tolerant and intermediate to NaCl, respectively. In the presence of V. dahliae, salt stress significantly reduced shoot and root dry weight and increased stem and root colonization by the pathogen and Na, K and Cl concentration compared to non-stressed inoculated plants. Sarakhs had higher percentage of colonization of stem and root by V. dahliae and concentration of Na, K and Cl than other cultivars. As a general conclusion, salt stress before inoculation by V. dahliae can increase the severity of Verticillium wilt of pistachio, especially in salt-sensitive rootstocks.

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Pistachio processing, such as production of pistachio butter, is one of the ways to increase the added value of pistachio. Pistachio butter is a paste containing mainly milled, roasted pistachio kernel and sugar. In this investigation, the effect of two emulsifiers (lecithin and mono-di glycerids) at three levels of 0.0, 1.0, 2.0%, on the oil leakage and the effects of BHT as an antioxidant at three levels of 0.00, 0.01 and 0.02% on the peroxide values of pistachio butter and paste after 4 months storage at 20 °C were studied. Each experiment was performed in triplicates. Rheological and organoleptic tests were performed on the finished products. The results were statistically analyzed by a completely randomized Design and by making comparisons between the means via multiple range Duncan's test (P <0.05). Roasting of the pistachios at 110°C for 15 min was the best condition as determined by taste panelists. Moreover, addition of 15-25% of sugar in butter formula, received the best score by the panelists. The results of organoleptic tests showed that the sample containing lecithin and mono-diglycerides had the least leakage of oil. Based on the results, pistachio butter produced in this investigation received higher score in terms of flavor and texture than industrial pistachio butter in the market. Results also showed that addition of BHT had a significant effect on shelf life of pistachio butter. Rheological experiments showed that pistachio butter produced in this investigation was 1.5 times softer than its industrial counterpart. The results indicated that the best formula for production of pistachio butter was 72.99 - 82.99 % roasted pistachio kernels, 15-25 % sugar, 1% lecithin, 1% mono di glyceride and 0.01 % BHT.

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Eight multiparous Holstein dairy cows with 634±44 BW, 57±6 DIM, and 46.7±3.1 kg daily milk yield were assigned to a duplicated 4×4 Latin square design for 21-day periods (adaptation, 14d sample collection, 7d). The treatment diets were: 1) no pistachio by-product (control), 2) 5% of pistachio by-product, 3) 10% pistachio by-product and 4) 15% pistachio by-product. Corn silage in control diet was replaced with pistachio by-product. The blood metabolites (2h after feeding), DMI, daily milk yield and milk compositions were not affected by the treatment diets. The economically corrected milk (ECM) and fat corrected milk (FCM) were decreased linearly by increasing pistachio by-product in the diet (P<0.1). By increasing the by-product level in the diet, digestibility of DM, OM, NDF and ADF were decreased linearly (P<0.05). Daily rumination and chewing activity alone or per DMI, NDFI or ADFI were linearly decreased when the by-product level increased in the diet (P<0.1). The results showed that the pistachio by-product does not seem to be suitable for complete replacing of the roughages in the diet and it can be used as a part of forage in the diet up to 10% of DMI.

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To study the effect of nitrogen, salinity and organic matter on growth and root morphology of pistachio (Cv. Badami), a greenhouse experiment was conducted. Treatments consisted of four nitrogen (N) levels (0, 60, 120 and 180 mg kg-1 soil as urea), four salinity levels (0, 800, 1600 and 2400 mg NaCl kg-1 soil) and three organic matter (OM) levels (0, 2 and 4% soil as farmyard manure). Treatments were arranged in a factorial manner in a completely randomized design with three replications. As the salinity levels increased, leaf, stem and root dry weights and root density, were significantly reduced. Addition of N up to 120 mg kg-1 soil, had no significant effect on growth, but the highest N level (180 mg kg-1), due to nutrient imbalance, reduced abovementioned plant parameters. In low salinity levels, N application improved the growth of pistachio seedlings, but at the highest salinity level, N addition didn’t suppress the adverse effects of soil salinity. Due to useful physical and nutritional properties of soil organic matter, addition of OM significantly increased leaf, stem and root dry weights, stem height, shoot/root ratio and root density.